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A MANUAL 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTXA' 



i(J 



THE PEOPLE OF THE SOUT 



PREPARED BY 



C. THURSTON CHASE, 

SUPERINTENDENT OF EDUCATION, FLORIDA. 







WASHINGTON: 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1868. 



! -H3* 2 



.cs 



Washington, D. C, November 28, 1867. 

Dear General: I have the honor to hand you herewith the manual, pre- 
pared at your request, on School-houses and Cottages adapted to the wants of 
plain people in the South. 

Several of the designs were originally prepared for schools in operation or 
organizing, others have been added, with such modifications as to make them of 
general acceptance. Those for the simplest structures comprise the substantial 
advantages of much more costly buildings. The directions accompanying 
are sufficient to enable the ordinary mechanic to erect them in an economical 
and approved manner. Outline plans for Union or Graded, High, and Nor- 
mal Schools are presented. Bills of material and labor are given, which will 
aid in estimating the expense before the work is commenced. The defects of 
poor buildings and bad furniture, the evils of ill ventilation, imperfect heating 
and lighting are pointed out that they may be avoided, and the means by which 
good furniture, pure air, an equable temperature., and a mild light may be 
secured are stated. Hints are added on the selection of sites, improving the 
grounds, and other pertinent subjects. 

It is proper to state that the small appropriation for engraving was exhausted 
before all the designs for school buildings were completed. Those for cottages 
were generously furnished as accredited. The space allowed for this portion of 
the work is relatively small, but the designs are good, and, if followed, will aid 
in overcoming those evils to which you referred in remarking that "no people 
can advance far in civilization where it is the practice for all the members of a 
family to live in one room — there to cook, eat, sleep, receive company, and die." 

The work is plain, concise, and explicit. No general discussions of principles 
are introduced. It has been condensed and made practical that it may be the 
more useful. Trusting that it will meet the object for which you designed it, 
and do good, 

I have the honor, general, to be your friend and servant, 

C. THURSTON CHASE, 
Superintendent of Education, Florida. 

0. 0. Howard, 

Major General, Commissioner . 



By Transfer 

NOV 21 1916 



d 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 



War Department, 
Bureau oe Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, 

Washington, January 28, 1868. 
The following work is a little more extensive than I had intended, 
[ts object is to furnish to freedmen who are constructing school-houses, 
cottages, and other buildings, simple models, at as cheap a rate as 
>ossible, and with sufficient detail to enable any ordinary mechanic to 
lo the work. The officers and agents of the bureau will give to this 
)amphlet as wide a circulation as possible, calling to it the special 
ittention of all who may be interested in elevating the taste of the 
>eople. It is just as easy and as cheap to construct a neat building as 
it is to put up an awkward and ungainly structure. I commend this 
rork to the careful perusal of all teachers and patrons of schools, pastors 
[of churches, and others who may have connection with public instruc- 
tion amongst the colored people of the southern States. 

0. 0. HOWARD, 
Major- Greneral, Commissioner. 



Co 



Office General Superintendent of Schoo 

February 19, 
I heartily commend this manual to all educational societies 
boards, superintendents, and teachers, who contemplate the ere, 
school buildings for refugees and freedmen. It will give the 
stantially, all the facts they need on the subject. 

J. W. ALVOE 

Gen I Supt. Schools, Bureau of Refugees and Freea 






CONTENTS, 



Paragraph. 

ir in its pure state 15 

changes in its component parts 16 

effect of combustion and respiration 17 

its relations to the animal economy IB 

dry and overheated 19 

contagion communicated in ill ventilated rooms 20 

report to New York City Board of Education 20 

fcold currents 26 

cubic feet of air to an individual 39 

asles, their use, scale of widths 9 

nte-rooms - 13 

*• .sh-house 89 

.ssembly hall or chapel 62, 69 

ho entrance to 10 

j^ Jalloon frame _ 65 

Jatten 50 

su 5ell 87 

31ackboards — 79 

kinds of wood suitable for 80 

paint for 81 

^ plaster wall 82 

paper surface 83 

slate 84 

rubber 85 

preservation of blackboard surface 87 

Blinds, their use in ventilating 23 

their use in lighting 31 

specifications concerning inside 70 

c frame 49 

.eight of 40 

^ *ee Assembly hall) 

ummon soiiools, their benefits 1, HI 

Cottages, educational influence of the home 93 

policy of the American government 99 

site for a dwelling 100 

description of a log house in the clearing 10] 

description of a saddle-back block-house 102 

description of a laborer's cottage 1 03 

description of a neat cottage 104 

description of a snug cottage 105 

description of a comfortable cottage 107 

description of a gardener's cottage 112 

description of a mechanic's home 108 

second story, full height 106 

paporing and furnishing 109 

color of cottages and school-houses 1.\ <■ 110 




6 ' CONTENTS. 

Paragraph, 

Cottages, concrete or gravel walls Ill 

gables, verge boards, hoods, &c 113 

Curtains 32 

Desks and seats 7, 8, 72 

their imperfections 3 

what is needed 7, 8 

improved wooden, their construction 73 

scale of measurement 75 

how to lay off a room for the desks 74 

Drainage 97 

Fan-lights 30 

specifications concerning 70 

Fences 93 

Fire-place 28 

Floors t JO 

Furniture 

miscellaneous articles of 

Gates, rustic U6 

Grounds, improving them 92 

ornamental 114 

Hall wardrobes, where needed 17 

their construction - 70 

Hedges 115 

Homes for plain people i 98 

Hoods for doors and windows 113 

Ink wells 76 

Light 31 

how regulated 53 

Logs, as building materials 47 

Log-house in the clearing 101 

enlarged and improved 102'f 

Log school-house, construction of 48 

Outbuildings - 89 

Piazza - 67,69,70- 

Piers 5a 

Porch, improved style of 55 

Privies 91 

Recitation room 36' 

Roofs, (see Specifications) 

Rustic work, useful and ornamental - 117 

Sash, adjustment in ventilating a room 23 

how to lower the upper 33 

School-houses, construction of 48 

common defects to avoid 2, 3 

improvements, how brought about .4 

requirements of better buildings 8 

advantages of one-story buildings 44 

how to plan 34 

plans of one-story buildings to accommodate 35, 42, 48, 56, and 64 

pupils v 38 inch 43 

description of log school-house 47 

description of plain country house 52 

description of school-h'ou^e with basement 55 

description of village 'school-house for 128 pupils .'. . . 61 



CONTENTS. 7 

Paragraph. 

School-houses, description of school-house with chapel i. 62 

description of building for Union or Graded school, 224 pupils 63 

description of building for High school, 300 pupils 66 

description of building for Normal school No. 1, 300 pupils 67 

description of building for Normal school No. 2, 352 pupils 69 

School-rooms, units of measure for determining size of 35 

number of teachers to one 44 

square feet of floor surface to each pupil and teacher 47 

height of ceilings 40 

Specifications for plain country school-house 54 

school-house with basement 56 

Normal school No. 1 68 

Normal school of brick 70 

Stoves 29 

Teacher's room - 12 

furniture for 78 

tables 77 

platform 11 

Trees, shade and ornamental 96 

Venetian blinds, their use in ventilating 30 

their use in regulating the admission of light 32 

inside, specifications concerning 70 

Ventilation 21 

general principles governing 22 

in summer 23 

in winter 24 

forced 2* 

diseases generated for want of 21 

Walks . 95 

Warming 27 

Windows - 41 

Wood-house 89 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Fig. 

Vertical section of school-house, showing air currents ■ I 

Plan of school-room for 35 pupils at single desks 2 

Diagram showing plans of school-houses for 42, 48, 56, and 64 pupils, &c 3 

Design for a log school-house 4 

Ground plan of a log school -house 5 

End elevation for box-frame building 6 

Side elevation for box- frame building 7 

Cross-section of a batten 8 

Design for a rural school-house - 9 

Design for an improved common school building 10 

Plan of school-house for 84 pupils - H 

Vaux's design for school-house 12 

Plan for two schools combined 13 

Plan for village school 14 

Front elevation of school 15 

Side elevation of school 16 

Ground plan for two-story school building 17 

Plan for an Assembly hall or chapel 18 

A tower 19 

Ground plan of second floor for Union school 20 

Balloon frame, a side elevation 21 

Ground plan for High school 22 

Ground plan for Normal school No. 1 23 

Front elevation of Normal school No. 1 24 

Side elevation of Normal school No. 1 25 

Gi'ound plan for Normal school No. 2 26 

Side elevation 27 

Plan of chapel 28 

Common wooden desks, end view '- 29 

Improved wooden desks, end view 30 

Connecting bar 31 

Top of desks and seats, showing their forms, &c 32 

Ink cup 33 

Cover for ink-well 34 

Improved single desk and chair 35 

Improved double desk and chair - 36 

Teacher's table No. 1 37 

Teacher's table No. 2 «. 38 

Teacher's table No. 3 39 

Book-case , 40 

Design for a log house 41 

Plan of a log house 42 

Design for a saddle-back log house 43 

Plan of a saddle-back log house 44 

Design for a laborer's cottage 45 

End elevation 46 

Ground plan , - 47 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 9 

Fig. 

Design for a neat cottage 48 

Grouad plan 49 

Attic plan 50 

A window hood 51 

Design for a snug cottage 52 

Ground plan 53 

Plan of second story 54 

Rearrangement of rooms 55 

Design for a comfortable cottage 56 

Ground plan 57 

Second story 58 

Design for a mechanic's home 59 

Plan- of principal floor 60 

Plan of chambers 61 

Design for a gardener's cottage 62 

Ground plan 63 

Plan of second story 64 

Design for a stone window hood 65 

Design for a hipped gable 66 

Design for a verge board and finial No. 1 67 

Design for a verge board and finial No. 2 68 

Design for a hooded door 69 

Design for a hooded window 70 

Design for laying out grounds 71 

Design for rustic gate No. 1 72 

Design for rustic gate No. 2 73 

Design for rustic gate with roof 74 



MANUA 




SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES 

FOR THE 

PEOPLE OF THE SOUTH. 



TJGEE COMffl©! SCHOOL 

1. The Common School is the poor man's best friend. Ignorance is his ruin, 
heming him in on every side to a narrow and ignoble sphere. The school spans 
the gorge and makes its passage easy. The parent, indeed, may never be able 
to cross it, but his children can pass over from their abodes of poverty and igno- 
rance and attain the prizes of wealth, usefulness, honor, and power among the 
first and the best. 

The State which is well supplied with good teachers is sure to be well governed. 
There, property is safe and the person is secure. Schools are our best " peace 
establishment." In them Liberty intrenches herself. In war time they ate the 
pledges of national strength and endurance. They are the handmaids of Virtue. 
They prepare the way for Christianity to go down among the vicious and depraved 
and draw them out of their misery and crimes to higher planes, where the prac- 
tice of all things noble, pure, and true are possible. 

Washington foresaw that " the perpetuity of our republican institutions de- 
pends upon the intelligence and virtue of the people." With that view his 
parting admonition co^^nselled us to " promote, as an object of primary import- 
ance, institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge ;" for " in proportion 
as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential 
that public opinion should be enlightened." 

Do not the events of our history point to universal education as the means on 
which all patriots may unite to make the nation a unit in sentiment, spirit, and 
power? 



2. According to the reports of Superintendents of Public Instruction in the 
different States, millions of dollars have been unwisely expended in .the con- 
struction of school-houses. The cause assigned was a want of knowledge as 
to what a good edifice for this purpose should be, and to. the absence of correct 
models to copy after. 

The earlier school-houses were exceedingly rude and unsuitable. When private 
residences and other public buildings were improved, they still were neglected. 
For a long time the people, seemed too much absorbed in subduing forests, build- 
ing cities, and founding States to give educational interests their needed atten- 
tion. For years after public school systems had been established the observing 
traveller could mark the district school-houses by their desolate, lonely, uncared- 
for aspect. They were too frequently located on some barren and treeless hill- 
side, where the hot suns of summer pelted down upon them, and the cold winds 
of winter had unbroken sweep ; or on a narrow strip of land at the junction of 
highwa} r s, where the dust was sure to blow into the house from one or the other 



1.2 SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 

road ; or by canals and railroads, in the neighborhood of factories, or the busiest 
■portions of villages, where study would be interrupted and the persons and 
morals of the children endangered. Broken windows, swinging weather-boards, 
leaky roofs were noticeable from without. Inside were filthy floors, smoked 
ceilings and walls defaced with obscene images. k The furniture was of the most 
primitive kind and constructed with little or no reference to the comfort of those 
who were to use it. Appliances promotive of order and cleanliness were neg- 
lected. Hats and clothing were thrown on the floor or tossed over the benches. 
If there was a privy, it was a den of loathsomeness. Altogether, the common 
school seemed to be a place which had few attractions, but much that was offen- 
sive and repulsive. 

3. In the rural districts of the South many school-houses are as yet but little 
better than log huts in the clearing, or deserted negro quarters in the old field. 
Gin houses, outbuildings, workshops, hospital barracks, abandoned town halls, 
and churches are very extensively used for ". temples of knowledge." They 
are generally without lathing and plastering, destitute of suitable warming fix- 
tures, and devoid of well regulated ventilation. Some have too much light ; 
others no windows at all. The openings for windows may have board shutters, 
on closing which to keep out storms, the school is driven into the street. Very 
few have good desks. The benches are commonly without backs, and often so 
high that the children, when writing, lay their books upon them, Avhile they kneel 
upon the floor. It is needless to mention the absence of books, blackboards, 
apparatus, and outbuildings. Some school-houses are located in marshy places, 
half surrounded by water, or in districts notoriously subject to the visitation of 
epidemics and fertile in miasma which causes chills and fever. In buildings of 
recent construction improvements have been introduced, but there is still a want 
of full and practical directions. 

4. When public attention was first called to the importance of this matter, 
twenty-five years ago, by Mann, Barnard, Page, and others, resort was had to 
publications containing the needed information. Every school district in several 
of the States was supplied with a copy of such works as Barnard's School 
Architecture and Pennsylvania Common Schools. They were extensively cir- 
culated in other States. The effect produced by the dissemination of this in- 
formation among the people was all that could have been desired. The uncouth 
devices of the past were ignored ; new buildings were erected, combining all 
the merits which skill and liberality could provide. The locations were more 
fitly chosen, shade trees were planted, and suitable outbuildings were erected. 
Better teachers were employed and higher salaries paid. When the school- 
houses were improved the best talent of the communities was enlisted in the 
administration of educational affairs. Union or graded schools were established 
in villages and cities and in thickly populated rural districts. Experience added 
to knowledge. Thorough and complete systems of public instruction have 
been entered upon, and the standard of excellence steadily advanced, until the 
free schools have generally superseded those conducted under private auspices. 

Notwithstanding the rapid progress of our country in material greatness, the 
improvement of our common schools has reached that high degree of excellence 
aud contributed so largely to the promotion of the general good that we now 
point to them with an honest pride as the ehiefest jewels we possess. There 
the child of the humblest laborer is privileged alike with the son of the most 
favored and wealthy citizen. They strive in honorable rivalry in youth, and 
enter the lists at maturity side by side. Through the blessings of the common 
school the State is honored and strengthened by the best talents of all its citizens. 

Is not the course plain for those States where the common school systems 
have not yet received legal sanction 1 May they not, by taking counsel of the 
experience elsewhere attained, speedily gain rank for their institutions of learn- 
ing among the first in the land ? 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



THE SITE.— WHAT IT SHOVIiD COMBINE. 

5. The officers, whether of a regularly organized school district or its near 
equivalent, a school society, will have the selecting of the location for the school 
building. It is their duty to provide for the largest convenience of the children 
who are to attend. The points to be regarded are that it shall be central yet 
retired, healthful, pleasant, and spacious. A few reasons may be added. It 
should be — 

Central, so that the greatest number may be accommodated. This need not 
necessarily be at the geographical centre, but at the point most accessible for all 
by the roads and paths leading to it. 

Retired from the stir of business, the dust and confusion of thronged roads 
or streets, away from the screaming of engine whistles and the roaring of rail- 
way trains. This precaution is needful for the quiet of study hours and the 
safety of the children out of school. 

Healthful, that personal vigor and beauty may be promoted and the capacity 
for improvement quickened. The neighborhood of marshes and sluggish streams 
is to be avoided. Also, proximity to stables, slaughter-houses, gas-works, and 
all manufacturing establishments from which offensive odors are emitted. 

Pleasant, embracing, if possible, the range of a fine landscape view, with 
farms and cottages near at hand ; villages, rivers, lakes, and mountains more 
remote. 

Spacious, giving an abundance of room for a well, outbuildings, play-grounds, 
separate back yards for the boys and girls ; and in front, room for shade and 
ornamental trees, shrubbery and flowers. 

These accommodations will require at least one acre of ground. In locating 
the building it will be found advantageous to place it a little in front of the centre 
of the lot yet not directly on the street, nor too near the highway. 

The selection of a good site is of such high import that in several States laws 
have been enacted clothing proper civil officers with power to determine on the 
location and appraise its value after ordinary negotiations have failed. 

THE WABTTS OF THE jgCHOOiL-HOIMEl 

6. The building should be fitted for the school on the same principle that 
a dwelling is made for the family, a storehouse for its merchandise, or a church 
for devotional exercises. Buildings erected for other purposes are seldom of 
the right size or form for schools. The health and comfort of the children 
while at school are not to be disregarded. All their future will be affected by 
the impressions they receive and the habits they contract at school. They will 
reach maturity with more or less vigor of physical constitution, and make belter 
or worse citizens according to the influences there exerted upon them. 

Nor are the wants of the teachers to be overlooked. There is no position 
more arduous, none requiring greater tact and skill, and certainly none more 
honorable and useful. Every aid should be extended, and every appliance pro- 
vided which will heighten the effect of judicious teaching and at the same time 
diminish, as far as may be, the arduous labors and petty annoyances incident to 
the work. Not only is an airy and commodious room required, but one that 
shall be suited to the size of the school. A large open hall for a small school 
is cheerless as a barn, while a small one, overcrowded, is always uncomfortable 
and becomes infectious of disease. Good school-houses attract good teachers ; 
poor ones repel them and bring education into disrepute. 

The essential requisites of a school-house are briefly these : 

1. A desk and seat for each pupil. 

2. Aisles. 

3. A teacher's platform. 



14 SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 

4. A teacher's room. 

5. Separate ante-rooms for the boys and girls. 

6. Arrangements for warming, ventilating, and lighting. 

Extensive rows of backless benches have long since been discarded. As soon 
as a child begins to write on a slate he needs a desk to lay the slate upon. If 
allowed or required to rest the slate or book upon his knee a habit of stooping 
is acquired which leads to bodily deformity and organic disease. There are two 
styles of desks in use — the single and the double. 

7. Single Desks. — It is better for each pupil to be seated at a desk by him- 
self. The younger and less accustomed to discipline the greater is this want. 
The size of a single desk with seat is two feet in front by two and a half in rear. 
Although it occupies but nine square feet on the floor, yet, with the space occu- 
pied for aisles, the platform, &c, each desk requires an average floor surface, of 
twenty square feet. Rooms intended exclusively for small children may Toe 
made smaller on the ground, but should not be less in height of ceiling. Indeed, 
the height of the room should be greater, on account of the greater activity of 
the lungs of children in consuming the air. 

The method of arranging them and the aisles may be seen in Fig. 2. Each 
pupil is separated from every other one. It leaves him less exposed to tempta- 
tions to disorder, and relieves the teacher of the severest part of that exacting 
care which exhausts the strength and wastes the nervous energies of the stoutest 
constitutions. 

The objections to single desks are wholly on the score of expense. Their 
first cost is greater. The school-room, to accommodate a given number of pu- 
pils at single desks, must be about one-fifth larger than for double desks. This 
is shown by reference to Figures 2 and 3. 

8. t Double Desks vary in length from three and a|half to four feet. In width 
they correspond to single desks. A desk and seat for two adults would occupy 
just twice that required in a single desk; but there are fewer aisles. in a school- 
room seated in this way, so that the average space on the floor is less, vary- 
ing from fifteen to twenty feet according to the width of aisles. Figure 3 shows 
the arrangement of double desks in a room. The construction of desks is dis- 
cussed under ff 72. 

9. Aisles are primarily for the convenience of the pupils in going to and from 
their seats. The outside aisles are the principal passage ways ; they are also 
used for classes to stand in during recitations and exercises at the blackboards. 
The usual width of the inside aisles is, between single desks, eighteen inches ; 
double desks, twenty-four inches ; the outside aisles, three and a half feet. In 
the plans given the front and rear aisles are set down at three feet, but there 
will be some gain in seating from the fact that the smaller desks take up less 
room than has been allowed for them. This will gain enough to make both the 
end aisles three and a half feet 'wide, or the one next the platform four feet. 

scale of widths of aisles. 

Inside. Front end. Back end. Side. 

For single desks 10 to 20 inches. 3 to 5 feet. 2J to 3 feet. 3 to 4 feet. 

For double desks. . .22 to 26 inches. 3 to 5 feet. 2% to 3|- feet. 3 to 4 feet. 

In large rooms, for sixty or more pupils, the centre aisle is sometimes made 
a foot wider than the other inside ones. The side aisles of chapels and assem- 
bly halls should be about three feet wide; the centre aisle four feet. The posi- 
tion of the aisles may properly have an influence in determining the position of 
the doors. 

10. The entrances to a school-room should be facing the school and at the 
side of the teacher's platform. To an assembly hall, chapel, &c, they should 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 15 

be at the back or opposite end, so that persons coming in would not face the 
audience. 

11. The Platform. — A liberal provision for the teacher's wants shows an 
appreciation which can be manifested in no other way so acceptably. Although 
the teacher is not confined to any particular part of the room, yet custom and 
convenience have indicated a situation in front of the school, from which the at- 
tention of every pupil may be instantly commanded, the signals of order an- 
nounced, and general and special exercises conducted. A platform about five 
feet by six, or six feet square, with a table on the front, has been generally 
adopted. The doors through which the children find entrance and egress are 
situated at either side of the platform. This enables the teacher to keep them 
completely in order at the times when disorder is most likely to arise. It is 
customary to raise the platform to the height of one or two steps — say six to 
twelve inches. In large rooms the size of the platform is increased. In assem- 
bly halls it may be ten feet wide by eighteen long, elevated three feet above the 
floor. This will afford room for the seating of guests on public occasions, and 
admit of arrangements for musical entertainments, exhibitions, and the like. 

Of the smaller platforms it maybe remarked that their width must be suffi- 
cient for a desk or table in front of the teacher, two feet or two and a half wide, 
for the chair which the teacher occupies, and space behind the chair to move it 
back on rising. 

12. A Teacher's Room is much needed for the safe keeping of maps, charts, 
books, &c, as a place for retirement and for consultation with parents or trustees 
who may call on business connected with the school. Here, too, the teacher 
may adjust the minor difficulties in a quiet way, by kindly words of admonition, 
which go further in correcting the errors of hasty youth than sternness and 
severity. Its size may be from six or eight to ten or fifteen feet square. In 
the larger schools it should be about fifteen by twenty feet. It may then be 
used for a recitation room. (See ft 78.) 

13. Ante-rooms. — To prevent the slovenly and wasteful practice of throwing 
the laicl-off clothing on the floor, or across the benches and desk, a room should 
be provided between the school-room door and the outer entrance to the build- 
ing — one for the boys, another for the girls — in which they may leave whatever 
does not pertain to the school exercises. When there is but one entrance and, 
at the announcement of school, all the children rush headlong for this door, con- 
fusion and discord ensue. That may be prevented by having separate entries. 
They should be large enough for shelves and hooks for the reception of hats, 
cloaks and " dinner things." They are to be divided and the divisions num- 
bered corresponding to the numbers of the pupils' desks. 

14. Hall Wardrobes may be provided in large buildings where separate 
ante-rooms have not been arranged, (ft 70.) The same plan of numbering is then to 
be used as above, and the articles to be handed out as the pupils leave the room. 
The wardrobes are locked and the teacher keeps the key at other times. 



15. The condition of the atmosphere we breathe has a much greater influence 
upon the health of the body and the strength, vigor, and activity of the brain 
than is commonly understood. The external air,* as it comes to us from the 
forests, the field, the mountains, and the ocean, is, as a general rule, in the highest 
degree promotive of health. When noxious vapors are infused into it they are 
neutralized by frosts, or being borne on the winds are absorbed by large bodies 
of water, and by the countless leaves of living plants. Animals, by breathing, 

* The atmosphere, according to Brande, contains, by weight : nitrogen, 75 55 parts : oxy- 
gen, 23.32; aqueous vapors, 1.03; carbonic acid gas, .10. 



16 SCHOOL-HOUSES -AND COTTAGES. 

consume the oxygen and exhale carbonic acid gas. Plants, in turn, absorb the 
carbonic acid and exhale oxygen. 

16. Any material change in the component parts of the atmosphere produces 
very remarkable consequences. Thus, if its oxygen be increased, a flame burns 
more intensely, animal life is stimulated and shortened by over-action. If 
diminished, a flame burns more dimly and at length is extinguished ; the indi- 
vidual breathing it experiences a sense of languor and weariness; a considerable 
reduction eventuates in death. Let the trace of carbonic acid be increased to 
one per cent., in consequence the brilliancy of a flame is diminished ; a stupor 
comes over the individual inhaling it and a sensation is felt in the brain as though 
a band were drawn tightly around the head. At four per cent., it extinguishes 
combustion and endangers life. At ten or twelve per cent., it causes speedy 
death. 

17. It has been ascertained by experiment that six candles weighing a pound 
consume, in burning, all the oxygen from twenty cubic feet of air per hour. A 
large kerosine burner produces a like effect on twenty- five cubic feet of air in 
the same time. A cubic foot cf coal gas consumes, in burning, twice that 
amount of oxygen. A fire for heating a room produces similar results, and on 
a larger scale in proportion to the flame. 

A man of medium stature, the capacity of whose lungs is about two hundred 
cubic inches, exhausts all the oxygen from twenty cubic inches of air at each 
respiration, and imparts four and a half per cent, of carbonic acid gas to the 
expired breath. The blood at once absorbs the oxygen and is vitalized by it, 
while it rejects the effete or used-up matter which it has gathered in its circula- 
tion through the system, and returns again through the arteries to infuse new 
life to every part and to receive anew the waste material which is no longer 
needed, but which the system cannot retain without experiencing serious organic 
derangement. When no provision is made for the escape of the impure air from 
a room it is resorbed by the lungs of those in it and contaminates the blood with 
which it comes in close contact. 

The weight of the exhalations from the lungs and pores of the skin, by a 
school of forty-eight pupils, during the six school hours of a day is set down at 
two pounds, and that of the carbonic acid gas brought into the air by the re- 
turned breath amounts to sixteen pounds per hour. Filthy floors and untidy 
clothes greatly increase these evils. We now pass to consider briefly the effect 
of these changes upon the animal economy. 

18. It is well known that the activity of any particular member of the body 
depends upon the amount of oxygen which is communicated to it. The black- 
smith's arm, by increased labor, claims and receives an increased supply of blood 
and of oxjfgen from it^ But let the needed flow be diminished, the arm shrivels, 
its muscular power is lost. A total suppression paralyzes it altogether. The 
brain, weighing only one-sixteenth of the whole body, consumes, by its cease- 
less activity, one-sixth of all the blood thrown out by the heart. A suppression 
of the arterial current to the brain causes stupor and dizziness, followed by 
fainting and finally death. 

A simple experiment will illustrate the fact. Place any small animal, as a 
mouse, under a glass jar from which the air is excluded. Soon its breathing 
becomes perceptibly labored, growing more and more difficult, until he drops 
down in a stupor and presently dies. If a candle were inserted instead of the 
mouse the flame would, in a short time, burn dimly and continue diminishing in 
brilliancy until it is extinguished. The air in the jar is now in such condition 
as to produce death to animal life immediately or extinguish flame at once. But 
if, ou the other hand, the jar had been filled with pure oxygen, the results in 
both cases would have been directly the reverse. 



SCEOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 17 

The purity of the atmosphere breathed by persons engaged in outdoor em- 
ployment is one chief cause of their enjoying better health and greater cheer- 
fulness of spirits than those confined to sedentary employments. It is a common 
remark that puny clerks and delicate craftsmen become, as soldiers or engineers, 
robust, hardy men. 

19. When the atmosphere is highly charged with heat it is liable to be less 
vitalizing than before its temperature was raised, and from two causes. First, 
on being heated it becomes rarer or thinner, the lungs by a given expansion 
inhale less oxygen than when the air was cooler and denser. Second, the health- 
fulness of the air is impaired by heat, unless at the same time the watery vapor 
which it contains is increased. Air, saturated with moisture at a temperature 
of thirty-two degrees, becomes insufferably parching to the lungs and skin when 
heated to seventy- five degrees without an addition of moisture. About three 
hundred per cent, more is required at the latter than the former temperature. 

20. The nature of the refuse matter thrown off by the lungs and pores of the 
skin demands further consideration. Chemical analysis has failed to define, 
satisfactorily, the character of these bodily exhalations. They contain prop- 
erties, so subtile as to elude detection, which are fraught with the most painful 
consequences to those who are exposed to their contact. Some idea of their 
nature may be formed by placing a sponge, saturated with water, in the venti- 
lator of a crowded hall to receive the escaping current. The fetid air of the 
room imparts an offensive odor to the sponge and the water even becomes putres- 
cent. It is a well established fact that a person afflicted with an infectious 
disease so charges the atmosphere of a large assembly hall with a subtile con- 
tagion that any person breathing the air may be contaminated. 

What parent, teacher, or school officers, who regard the well being of the youth 
committed to their charge, can longer remain indifferent, on a candid considera- 
tion of the facts adduced ? The report of a committee appointed by the New 
York city Board of Education, in commenting on the dangers to the pupils breath- 
ing an atmosphere which has been thus corrupted, says: "The rottenness of 
the air is Communicated to the lungs, and lung diseases are generated. The 
enormous mortality from lung diseases, averaging a hundred and ninety deaths 
per week, is in a great part attributable to the foul air breathed every day by 
the 60.000 children in the schools. The prevalency of scarlet fever, which for 
the past few years has been remarkably great in the primary schools, may be 
attributed to the same cause in even a greater degree." 

YENTIIiATION. 

21. The remedies for these evils are simple. They lie wholly within the 
reach of those who have charge of the construction of the school buildings and 
the management of the schools. In the firet place, the causes which render the 
air impure should be abated as far as possible. When the air becomes impure 
it should be driven out and pure air supplied in its place, or, more definitely — 

1. The floors, walls, and furniture should be kept perfectly clean. 

2. Personal cleanliness of the pupils should be enforced. 

3. In constructing the building provision should be made for expelling the 
vitiated atmosphere as fast as it becomes impure. 

4. At the same time arrangements should be made for admitting pure, fresh 
air from without. 

This is simply driving out our enemies and entertaining our friends, 

A room to be healthful should contain not less than one hundred and eighty 

cubic feet of atmosphere to each person in it. Aud this entire volume should be 

changed every hour. 

22. This can easily be done by availing ourselves of the fact that, when the 
2 s c 



18 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 




Fig. 1. Vertical , section of school- 
house, showing air currents. 



temperature of any portion of the atmosphere 
is raised three or four degrees higher than that 
with which it is in communication, it imme- 
diately ascends. The expelled breath, being 
warmer and lighter, rises to the upper regions 
of the room, carrying with it the waste mate- 
rial from the lungs. It needs no argument to 
show that if this can be allowed to pass off, 
the purity of the air will be maintained much 
longer than if confined. 

23. Summer Ventilation. To show the 
practical working of what is termed ventila- 
tion, or the controlling of air currents, let us 
suppose all the openings, as shown in the fig- 
ure, are closed, except those under the sashes 
at A and B. As the cool air comes in at these 
from outside it drops to the floor, as shown by 
the dotted lines and arrows. The warm air of 
the room which lies below the level of A and B can at the same time escape ; 
but that which is above it cannot. The colder and heavier air below buoys it 
up. By contact with the fresh air a portion of it becomes cooled, descends, and 
passes out at the openings. Now lower the upper sashes. The air in this- region 
•of the room will pass out at the openings C and D, as represented, both from 
below and, on account of general movement of the air, from above. The change 
is rapid, and the result invigorating to the inmates. 

In mild, pleasant weather lowering the upper sashes will ventilate the room 
sufficiently. But when storms and high winds prevail it is necessary to keep 
the windows closed. To meet this emergency let there be an opening in the 
ceiling at E, two or three feet square, closed by a fan-door hung on pivots. 
Place a Venetian blind, with broad slats, in the gable at F ; or, if you prefer it, 
a fan- door instead of the blind. Let both the fan-doors be controlled by cords, 
which come down within reach in the room, to be opened or closed at pleasure. 
Suppose they are open and the sashes closed. The general direction of the 
warmer air is represented by the lines tending towards E and F. When storms 
occur the windows may be opened on the opposite side of the room from the 
direction of the wind to admit a fresh supply of the external atmosphere. 

This very simple mode of accomplishing our object has the further recom- 
mendation of being easily and cheaply constructed. It will not be sufficient to 
provide the one opening at E and allow the bad air to accumulate in the loft. 
There should not only be an opening in one, but in both gables to allow the air 
from below to escape, but also to convey away the air in the attic, which, in very 
hot weather,. becomes heated to suffocation by the rays of the sun falling upon 
the roof. 

24. Winter Ventilation. In cold weather our plan for ventilation must be 
changed. Instead of conveying away the heated air, we wish to retain it in the 
room as long as it is pure. Then drive it out and introduce fresh air. The 
fetid matter from the breath rises with it at first; on cooling, it descends. It 
may be said to pervade every part of the room. Let us now unite two opera- 
tions, that of warming and ventilating. Prepare a stove, as described in fl 29. 
This will give us an unbounded supply of pure air warmed by the heat of the 
stove before it enters the room. For a room of fifty pupils we construct two 
ventilating tubes, each ten inches square in the clear, and place them on opposite 
sides of the room ; or one of fifteen inches, and place it at the end opposite the 
doors. They extend from the floor to the peak of the roof, and there terminate 
in some " ejector," as Emerson's, or the American. An aperture is made in the 
tube near the ceiling, and another near the floor. They are readily closed with 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 19 

tight-fitting doors. All the joints of the tubes are air-tight. By opening the 
lower aperture the air escapes into the tube, and passes off. When the fire is 
burning briskly the pure hot air rises to the ceiling, the cooler falls to the floor, 
and is thus conveyed away. The dust, smoke, and all impurities may soon be 
exhausted from a room in this way. To cool a room suddenly open both the 
upper and lower ventilator. (See fl 70.) 

25. Forced Ventilation may be secured at all times by placing a stand for 
a lamp, or in cities where gas is used, a gas-burner, in the ventilating tube. It 
may be situated five feet from the floor, and be accessible through a door in the 
side of the tube. Ou starting the flame an uplifting column of air will always 
be obtained, which can be relied upon for carrying away the foul air under all 
circumstances. 

26. Care must always be taken that cold air, when admitted, does not fall 
upon the heads or backs of the occupants. It should be diffused so evenly and 
gently as to produce no perceptible currents. A fine screen, judiciously placed, 
through which the air may pass, will effect this object. Its position may he 
overhead, and the air permitted to " sift" into the room in that manner. But in 
common practice the careful attention of a teacher will regulate this matter. 

WARMIJVG. 

27. An even temperature is promotive of the greatest comfort and health. In 
an overheated room the system becomes excited ; the children grow restless, 
peevish, and disorderly, the teacher nervous and irritable. Relaxation will fol- 
low, exposing the system to insidious attacks of fevers, lung diseases, scrofula, 
&c. A cold room is scarcely less harmful. The modes of heating most com- 
monly in vogue are the fireplace and the stove. 

28. The Fireplace, first used six centuries ago, still retains a strong hold 
in wooded regions. Although it wastes fully three-fourths of all the heat gen- 
erated, yet it likewise changes the air of a room rapidly, and conveys away at 
the same time the impurities which may exist in it. By contracting the open- 
ings of the front and the passage at the throat of the flue it is made less wasteful 
of fuel. 

The position of the fireplace is shown in Fig. 5. When the room is large two 
will be needed, one at each side. The chimney tops must be carried up higher 
than the peak of the roof, and be well braced that they may not blow over. 

29. Stove. A good stove will not waste more than a fourth of its heat. Of 
those in common use for country schools, where wood is abundant, the style 
known as the six plated revertible flue is regarded as most economical of fuel. 
Some of the newer styles of coal stoves are still better. In larger rooms two 
wood stoves will be needed. Their position is shown in Fig. 11. 

The best arrangement for warming a room is by a stove placed in the centre, 
encased with a covering of zinc or galvanized sheet-iron, about a foot from the 
stove. Let a pipe open into this space from underneath connecting with the ex- 
ternal air. It should be closed by a damper. There is to be a door in the 
casing opposite the stove door through which to attend to the fire. The top of 
the casing is perforated with holes for the passage of the heated air, or is sup- 
plied with a register. By the use of a stove and the appendages here described, 
in connection with the ventilating tube, (^j 31,) the heated air rises to the ceil- 
ing, while the cold and somewhat impure portion is drawn from the lower part 
of the room. The newly heated air is the purer. After it has risen it is then 
dissipated throughout the mass of atmosphere around it until the whole becomes 
pleasant and comfortable. The position of the stove is at S. Fig. 1. 

30. The proper temperature of a school-room is between sixty-five and sev- 
enty-two degrees Fahrenheit. 



20 SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



LIGHTING. 



31. Too much light on the eye causes pain ; if long continued, blindness. 
Too little light compels the student to bring the head too near the book, induces 
a habit of stooping, and produces near-sightedness. Cross-rays — those falling 
on the eye from an end and a side of a room — are injurious. To a disregard of 
these facts may be traced the early failing of that strength, clearness, and beauty 
of the eye for which nothing can compensate. 

The mean to be secured is an even, mild, mellow light that shall not pain by 
its intensity nor strain the nerve by its faintness. 

32. The admission of light must be regulated by the windows. They should 
not come nearer the floor than four feet, and should extend high up towards the 
ceiling. The reasons are two-fold. If they descend near to the floor the air 
admitted by raising a window will strike on the necks and heads of the pupils. 
There will be unnecessary temptation to turn the attention to what may occur 
outside. Again, the light which is admitted at the top of the window diffuses 
itself more equally through the room, and falls on the book and the eye more 
acceptably. Venetian blinds with movable slats are the best appliances we 
have for regulating the admission of light. Those placed on the outside have 
some advantages in defending against the heat and protecting the glass from 
accident, but those inside are more manageable. (See |f 70.) Quite a perfect 
adjustment may be obtained by the use of both kinds, But it will often happen 
that neither will' be supplied. Curtains may then be made to take their place. 
Their color should be pleasant to the eye, as green, a mild brown or drab, straw 
color, or a tint of purple, but neither black, white, nor any bright color is ad- 
missible. They should* be arranged to lower from the top instead of rolling up 
from the bottom. In that way the light will be more agreeably diffused through 
the room. When, for purposes of ventilation, windows are placed in front of 
the pup. Is or facing the teacher, they should be provided with thick curtains, 
capable of excluding all the light when necessary. 

33. While on the subject of windows a hint may be offered on a ready way 
to lower the upper sash when it has no weights. Take a chisel and mallet and 
cut out a strip of the casing underneath the sash, say twelve or sixteen inches. 
Nail an inch strip against the casing so that it will come close to the side rail or 
stile of the sash. Bore a quarter-inch hole through the stile and into the strip 
just nailed on. One hole through the stile is sufficient ; three are needed in the 
outside strip. With the use of an iron pin or hard wood peg the sash may be 
held to any required height. In default of a strip being nailed to the outside 
casing, holes may be bored through both the upper and lower stiles to answer 
the purpose about as well. For further security a button let into the opposite 
stile, say half way from its top, may be made to hold the upper sash in place 
when closed. 

PliAtf^IXG THE SCHOOL HOUSE. 

34. How large shall the school-house be 1 The answer to this question will 
depend chiefly upon the number of pupils to be accommodated, but in part upon 
the system of teaching adopted, and will always be iufluenced by the kind and 
style of furniture used. 

35. The Units of Measure. — One teacher to a room and forty eight pupils 
to a teacher are the full complements that should be allowed. Where more 
teachers are required there must be more rooms. Two teachers cannot work 
advantageously together. The confusion of two classes reciting at the same 
time, and two persons explaining difficult questions or commanding order simul- 
taneously, cannot fail to distract the attention of the pupils and retard their 
progress. The work in an ungraded school is greater than in one that is well 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES 



21 



classified. It is better, therefore, in rural districts to calculate on giving fewer 
pupils to a teacher. Twenty-five are sufficient to employ all the time and ener 
gies of a first-rate insti - uctor. Could parents make up their minds to meet the 
extra expense they would be better satisfied with the result. The law of com- 
pensation holds true in regard to teachers as in the market place : We must give 
value to get value in return. 

36. It may be remarked, in passing, that when the school increases beyond 
the number which the teacher can attend to, the teacher's room may be used as 
a class-room by an assistant or one of the advanced pupils in hearing the recita- 
tions of the beginners. All the plans contemplate this as a probable necessity, 
and have been arranged accordingly. 

The divisions in the 
rows represent the spaces 
occupied by the desks and 
seats. Single desk 2 feet 
in front by 2£ feet in the 
row; inside aisles 1J foot; 
side aisles 3% feet ; end 
aisles 3 feet Teacher's 
platform, 5x6 feet. Size 
of room, 2S£ x 23 feet. 

37. Suppose the school 
officers on counting up find 
that they need to provide 
a house for thirty-five or 
forty pupils. Only a small 
building is required. Let 
us lay two plans : one, for 
seating each of the pupils 
at a desk alone ; the other, 
two at a desk. The thirty- 
five pupils, if seated sepa- 
rately, would of course 
require thirty-five desks. 
They are to be arranged 
in convenient form for the 
observation and instruc- 
tion of the teacher, as well 
as for their own comfort. 
)w. Set them a foot and 



Fig. 2. School-room for thirty-five pupils at single desks. 

Let us divide them into five rows of seven in a 
a half apart to give passage ways. This forms a parallelogram-shaped block 
sixteen feet across in front and seventeen and a half deep. Add an aisle three 
and a half feet to each side, the total width is sixteen feet. An aisle of three 
feet in rear, another of three feet in front next the platform, with the width of 
the platform, five feet, added, will give a total length of twenty-eight and a half 
feet. The teacher and each pupil has an average space on the floor of nearly 
twenty feet. This is a very suitable form for a school- room. 



22 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



i^ 



29' 

a mbs ma « mo pa iech ie na eb m et;;, ^-^a E ra ~^ ^^ a? 1 * c^> ca ecb cee KB C38 B8 B3 B3 U 



.2-3' 



r 8SB ESS E3 E3 O E3 S 



3' 6" 




Fig. 3. A diagram showing the mode of arranging school-rooms for 42, 48, 56, and 64 
pupils at double desks. Also, the size and position of the teacher's room and ante-iooms 
adjoining. 

38. Full-sized double desks occupy a floor space equal to 4 feet in front by 2h 
feet in rear. The side aisles are 3.| feet wide; inside aisles, 2 feet ; rear aisle, 
3 feet ; front aisle, 3 feet ; teacher's platform, 5 feet. The sizes of the teacher's 
room and ante-rooms are shown in the engraving. 

39. Plan of School-house for Forty-two Pupils — Forty-two pupils 
will require twenty-one double desks. The most convenient form in which they 
can be arranged is to divide them into three rows of seven in a row. These are 
indicated by the continuous lines. Those with dotted lines have reference to 
other plans. Allowing for aisles and platform as above, the size of the plan is 
28^ by 23 feet. Each pupil and the teacher will have an average area on the 
floor of fifteen square feet. The height of the ceiling should be 12 feet. This 
gives 180 cubic feet of air to each occupant of the room. The ante-rooms are 
8 by 6 feet; teacher's room, 6 by 7 feet. Outside measurement, 36 by 24 feet. 

40. Persons accustomed to living under ceilings not more than seven feet 
high will be likely to object to the heights here recommended. If they will 
not waive their objections and require the sides of the rooms to be lower, let 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 23 

the ceiling extend up on the rafters to the collar-heams. It is even better, where 
the climate will admit, to have no ceiling to the smaller school-houses than to 
box the children np within such narrow spaces that their health will be con- 
tinually in jeopardy from the bad air in the room. (See ventilation, fl 21.) 

The positions of the ante-rooms in the plan are properly represented. As 
the pupils come in and go out they will pass near the teacher and be less liable 
to be disorderly than if they left the room at the opposite end. 

41. Plan of School-house for Forty-eight Pupils. — Six additional seats 
are required to be added to the last plan. Throw the rear wall two feet farther 
back to the heavy dotted line. This, with the few inches gain which will be 
likely to accrue in seating, will give room for one more desk to be added to each 
of the three rows. The extra desks are shown by dotted lines. No other change 
need be made. 

The size of the room is 30J by 23 feet. Outside measurement of plan is 3S 
by 24 feet. The height of ceiling should be 13 feet. 

42. Plan of School-house for Fifty-six Pupils. — To lengthen the room 
would make it disproportionate for its width. It is better to bring in the rear 
wall to its former position, making the sides 28£ feet in length and extend on the 
right, as represented in the cut by the heavy dotted line, far enough to give 
space for another row of desks, (4 feet,) and aisle, (2 feet,) making its size 28 J by 
29 feet. Remove the teacher's platform 3 feet to the right. Extend the front 
wall 2 feet to give an opportunity for enlarging the ante-rooms and the teacher's 
room. With this number of pupils attending, the teacher will need an assistant, or 
the aid of an advanced pupil to hear some of the beginners in another room. The 
ante-rooms will be enlarged to 8 by 8 feet and the teacher's to 13 by 8 feet. 
This is practically enlarging the school-room. The ceiling should be 13^ to 14 
feet high. 

A large sum of money may be expended on a school building of this size, 
yet a very moderate amount may be made to procure all the substantial advan- 
tages in a modest and comfortable structure. 

43. Plan of School-house for Sixty-four Pupils. — Following out the 
same mode of enlarging as before, we remove the rear wall two feet and get 
room for another desk at each of the four rows, indicated in the cut by dotted 
lines. Each row now contains eight double desks, at which sixty-four pupils 
may be accommodated. The room is 30J by 29 feet. Outside measurement 
40 by 30 feet. 

With a ceiling 14 feet high, and the teacher's room regularly occupied as a 
class-room, the space to a pupil on the floor would be 15 feet, and the number 
of cubic feet of atmosphere would be 180. But when the teacher's room should 
not be occupied and all the desks in the room are used, the air in the room will 
rapidly become vitiated. To relieve it, as well as to lessen the burden of the 
teacher, the younger children may be dismissed, or lake a recess, after their morn- 
ing exercises are passed. 

44. In planning buildings which demand accommodations for many pupils the 
elements here laid down will aid in arriving at the proper form, size, and general 
arrangement. It is not well to build several stories high. Two should be the 
limit. Extend the rooms in either direction. Carry up towers for stairways ; 
or, better still, build piazzas from which to ascend by stairways to the upper 
story. To avoid many blunders, let the plans be well considered ; consult an 
experienced teacher as well as a good architect before letting the job or begin- 
ning the work. 

45. Table of School-rooms, showing sizes required for the different desks 
to seat a given number of pupils. The side aisles are 3£ feet; inside aisles, 2 
feet; rear aisles, 3 feet; front aisle and platform, 8 feet; space allowed a desk 
in a row, 2£ feet. 



24 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES 



Desk. 


Lerigth. 


pu^piis. ke of room. 


No. 
pupils. 


Size of room. 


No. 
pupils. 


Size of room. 


No. 
pupils. 


Size of room. 


No. 1 
No. 2 
No. 3 
No. 4 


4 ft, in. 
3 ft. 10 in. 
3 ft. 8 in. 
3 ft. 6 in. 


42 28* by 23 ft. 
42 ! 28} by 22} ft, 
42 128} by 22 ft. 
42 1 28} by 21} ft. 


48 
48 
48 
48 


31 by 23 ft. 
31 by 22} ft. 
31 by 22 ft. 
31 by 21} ft. 


56 
56 
56 
56 


98} by 29 ft, 

28} by 28} ft. 
28} by 27| ft. 
28} by 27 ft. 


64 
64 
64 
64 


31 by 29 ft. 

31 by 28} ft. 
31 by 27| ft. 
31 by 27 ft. 



CONSTRUCTION OF SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

46. The bints on the construction of different styles of buildings, the bills of 
material and labor, also the specifications attached to several of the desigus, have 
been furnished by master-mechanics or architects skilled in their business. 
They are intended to aid school officers as well as suggest to leys experienced 
workmen those ready ways by which close observers and successful craftsmen 
learn to do plain work rapidly, cheaply, and well. The man who can do twice 
as much as another in a given time can not only make more money, but also have 
more leisure for improvement and recreation. Such men work with their minds as 
well as their hands, and thus learn those ready ways which give them their ad- 
vantage over less active and thoughtless men. 




~~ i§t f; ^'^sfe 

Fig. 4. Design for Log School-house. 

47. The wigwam is superseded by houses built of logs before saw-mills are 
erected in a new country. Combining, as it does, not a few excellences, this 
style of building deserves more consideration than it receives. There is no good 
reason why a well-built log-house should not be as comfortable as any other. 
Logs are non-conductors of heat. The pun does not "strike through them," as 
through a common hollow, or any thin-walled house. The timber can, in 
wooded regions, be had for the asking. The chopping, hauling, and construc- 
tion involve more labor than the box-frame style of building, but the "money 
out" is les3. Where labor and timber are plenty and money scarce, let 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



25 



there be more pains taken in erecting the building ; then every advantage that 
is absolutely necessary may be gained. A good log-house will last a generation. 
The main building is 34 by 30 feet, with a lean-to of eight feet, subdivided 
into a teacher's room and ante-rooms ; pitch of roof, 17 feet ; projection of eaves, 
3 feet ; height of ceiling, 13 feet. 

48. The construction of a log-house is generally best understood by the fron- 
tiersmen who use them. The following hints may not be unacceptable to be- 
ginners : 

Select timber which will last well when exposed to the weather. The logs 
should be 10 to 12 inches in diameter. The sills might be heavier, say 16 
inches, squared, hollowed at the ends and pinned, or, better, spiked with 60- 
penny nails. The floor timbers are mortised with the sills and supported in 
centre by a bearing beam, as in |f 49. The ceiling, joists, and rafters are lighter, 
say 7 inches. After they are up the joists may be stayed to the rafters to pre- 
vent their settling. Still smaller sticks may be used for the partitions, say 4 or 
5 inches in diameter. 

There are several ways of making the partitions. One is to lay the logs 
horizontally between two standards or upright posts at each end. Another is to 
plough out a groove in larger sticks, squared, say two inches deep. Set up one 
at each end of a partition, and for door posts. Hew down the ends of the stuff 
for partitions so they will fit nicely into the groove. This done, put them in 
their places. They should be smoothly payed on each side with stiff clay, or 
chinked in the ordinary way. They may also be made of tongued and grooved 
inch and a quarter stuff, set upright, run into grooves in a head piece above and 
fixed by strips nailed each side at the bottom. Let the roof project far over 
the sides to shield them from the storms and hot sun. 

The ceiling may be covered 
with boards, battened, and the 
whole inside whitewashed. It is 
better, however, to lath and plas- 
ter when lime, sand, and hair are 
obtainable. Then, with good 
furnitui-e, the establishment may 
well challenge our pride. On 
such a house not over two hun- 
dred dollars in money need be 
expended to accommodate fifty to 
sixty-four pupils. 

The finial (the ornament on 
the peak of the roof) should be 
made of some regularly brancL.ng 
sapling, the limbs trimmed to 
even lenghts. 

Description of Plan. 
Scale 5^ inch to ] foot. 

A. School-room, 32 by 28 feet. 

B. Boys' ante-room, 8 by 7 feet. 

C. Girls' ante-room, 8 by 7 feet. 

D. Teacher's ante-room, 11 by 7 
feet. 

Size of desks to be used, No. 3. 
Side aisles, 3J feet. 
Centre aisle, 2^ feet. 
Re«r aisle, 4 feet. 

Fig. 5. Plan of Log School-house for sixty pupils. Outside measurement, 34 by 30 

feet. 




26 SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 

By using desks, size No. 3, (fl 97,) the aisles will be of good width. The 
first tier of seats should be set about five feet from the back end. To make 
room for those who come to the fire, leave out a desk from each of the two mid- 
dle rows. A screen will be needed in front of the fire. Should it be preferred 
to have the girls and boys enter their ante-rooms directly from separate yards 
on either side of the building, this can be attained by changing the doors from 
the front to the sides and placing the windows in front. The garret over the 
school-room is large. It may be used to store extra seats in. There should be 
a trap-door in the ceiling and a ladder to ascend to the garret. On one side 
of the chimney a stationary Venetian blind should be placed to be used in con- 
nection with the window in the other end, to allow the air to escape that may 
become heated in summer or vitiated from any cause. If care be taken in the 
construction, and then the finishing include lathing and plastering, as well as 
ventilating and lighting in a proper manner, the log school-house will do well for 
many years. 

49. The box frame is the simplest style of building a house of sawed 
lumber. It has sills, floor timbers, plates, and rafters, but no posts, studding nor 
framed braces. Let us take the ground plan designed to accommodate thirty- 
five pupils with single desks or forty-two at double desks (jj 39) and erect a 
building over it. The outside measurement is thirty- six by twenty-four feet. 
This allows six inches for each outside covering. v It will not take quite so much. 
But as we will not begin by begrudging space, from which comes comfort, conve- 
nience, and health, to those for whom we most delight to labor, the building may 
be framed accordingly. 

We mortise the side and tenon the end sills, or vice versa. They are 6 by 8 
inches, framed to lie edgewise, if there is not a continuous wall laid for them to 
rest upon. The centre sill, running lengthwise, also called a bearing-beam, 
stands two inches lower than the others and is well supported by frequent piers. 
Leave the ends of the side-sills on until the sides are up. 

The floor timbers are gained down two inches at the outer ends and come flush 
with the sill. The ends which rest on the bearing beam are not gained at all. 
Spike them to the sills. When the floor is laid the building cannot spread. 
Care bas of course been taken that the piers are level and correspond to the 
ground plan. 

Inch and a quarter plank 8 or 10 inches wide are used for the siding. They 
are first cut to lengths. We commence at the corners. Take two plank ; saw 
off one so that it will fit over the projecting end of a sill ; nail them together ; 
set up ; plumb and stay. The same at the other corners. The plates having 
been cut the length of the side-sills, may be raised to their places, even height 
with the corner- boards, nailed to them and shored up in the centre. Put up 
scaffolding from which to nail the upper ends of the siding. Side up. Leave 
no openings for doors or windows. Saw them out afterwards wherever you 
want them. ) 

A shorten way where there are half a dozen workmen on the job, is to make 
a platform pf the floor timbers and roof boards ; lay a side-sill in place and a 
plate the right distance inside to nail the siding to. Look out that the ends are 
even and that the first plank nailed on is at right angles with both sill and plate. 
They have all been cut to lengths and may now be nailed on rapidly. This 
done, all hands take hold, raise the side to its place, plumb and stay. Serve 
the other side in the same way. 

A slip-mortise is preferred by some builders for the ends of the sills to the 
common mortise and tenon. The side-sills are cut to the right length. The 
mortise is made quite out to the end. The tenon on the end sill is left the 
whole width of the stick. They are slipped together and spiked with 60-penny 
nails. The spikes are far preferable to wooden pins. They are cheaper and 
hold better. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



27 




t~t 



Fig. 6. End elevation. 



The beams or ceiling joists are gained down one inch and a quarter. Raise 

the two end ones first ; then the rest. If 
they are to be lathed on they will be placed 
either twelve or sixteen inches apart from 
centre to centre. If not, two feet is near 
enough. Nail them firmly to the plates to pre- 
vent the spreading of the roof. Next put on 
the roof. Finish with the corner boards, 
base, battens, &c. Cut out for the doors and 
'windows, and case up the openings. 

The engravings explain themselves. They 
present a view of the position of the doors 
and windows, the Venetian blind in the gable 
for ventilation, (see ]\ 30,) the rafters and the 
ridge-board, to which they are nailed to keep 
them in place, the piers, &c. In finish it is 
perfectly plain. The eaves project three feet. 

To correspond let the corner board, base, &c, be broad and heavy. Then the 

building will not look mean and — 

poverty-stricken, but seem to 

be devised with some degree of 

liberality. 

The overhanging eaves, be- 
sides improving the appearance 

of the house, carry the water 

which falls on the roof quite 

away from the sides. They also 

shield them from the sun's rays, 

and allow the windows to be low- 
ered from the top for ventilation 

on rainy days. Thus they make 

the building more comfortable 

and lasting. Fig. 7. Side elevation. 

50. A batten to be worth anything must have its corners chamfered off, as 
■ -i — . shown in the cut. When this is 

X done the action of the sun and 

weather makes it hug the siding 
more closely". When it is neg- 
lected the same causes curl up 
the edges, draw the nails, and 
leave the cracks exposed, which 
they were made to cover. 

The material for battens should 
be straight-rifted, heart stuff, an 
inch and a half thick, two and a 
half wide. The expert work- 



Fig. 8. Cross section of a batten. Full size. 



man, who studies how to save labor, will make a box in which to place the 
battens one after another, and chamfer off their corners rapidly and nicely with 
a drawing-knife. If the under side of the batten was grooved out it would still 
be an improvement. It will hardly pay to do that by hand. 

The stationary Venetian blind in the gable is for purposes of ventilation. 
(See fl 23.) The slats should be broad, and placed near together to prevent 
storms beating in. A fan-door, hung on pivots, is placed in the ceiling, to be 
used in regulating the escape of impure air from the room. 



28 SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES 

Bill of materials and work for a box-frame building 36 by 24 feet; ceiling, 12 
feet ; pitch of roof, 6 feet ; projection of eaves, 3 feet. 

Feet. 

Sills, 2 pieces, 6 by 8 inches, 38 feet long 304 

Cross sills, 1 piece, 6 by 8 inches, 38 feet long 152 

Cross sills, 2 pieces, 6 by 8 inch( s 25 feet long 200 

Plates, 2 pieces, 2 by 6 inches, 36 feet long 72 

Floor timbers, 30 pieces, 3 by 12 inches, 24 feet long 1, 800 

Ceiling joists, 12 pieces, 2 by 8 inches, 24 fe.et long 384 

Rafters, 26 pieces, 3 by 8 inches, 18 feet long 936 

Roof boards 1, 400 

Flooring, (surface measure,) 960 (^ added, 240) 1, 200 

Siding, (surface measure,) 1,930 (^ added, 480) 2, 4 1 

Finishing stuff for door and window frames, casings, base, battens, &c. 2, 500 

Total 11,360 

Shingles , , 12, 000 

Doors 5 

Windows 7 

Nails, in following proportions : shingle, 60 lbs. ; 8-penny, 40 lbs. ; 
10 penny, 400 lbs ; 12-penny, 100 lbs.; 20-penny, 33 lbs.; 40- 

penny, 34 lbs. ; 60-penny, 33 lbs. Total kegs 7 

Brick (8 by 4 by 2 inches) 400 

Carpenter's work, days 230 

51. We have now only the shell of a house. It may be used without plaster- 
ing the side walls ; but the ceiling should be lathed and plastered. The partitions 
may be of inch and a half stuff, planed, tongued and grooved, and set endwise. 
Or without tongues and grooves, in the rough, battened and whitewashed as all 
the insides of the rooms should be. Many a school is prospering in poorer 
quarters. In the extreme south, where private dwellings have been occupied 
for years without plastering and considered comfortable, this style of house 
will do well to commence with, especially if nicely furnished. If the house 
stands in an exposed position where the winds would be liable to injure it, boards 
may be nailed on the inside at an angle of forty-five degrees with the siding to 
make it perfectly staunch and secure. 

The extra expense for lathing and plastering would be but trifling. The fol- 
lowing are the additional items : 

Laths, 4,650 ; wainscoting, two feet on front end and sides, four feet on 
back end and in the ante and teacher's rooms, 540 feet ; lath-nails, 20 pounds ; 
plastering, 340 yards ; mason's work, including chimney, 34 days. 

The materials for a balloon frame building of the above description include 
those already given and the following additional : 

For frame, 2 by 6 inches, 1,400 feet long; partitions, 3 by 4 inches, 432 feet 
long ; nails, 10-penny, 200 pounds ; carpenter's work, 40 days. 

For the method of constructing a balloon frame, reference may be had to ff 65. 

There are other methods of erecting wooden buildings without frames ; as, for 
instance, using strips of boards sawed to widths of 5£ and 6 inches. They are 
laid flatwise, commencing with a 6-inch strip, then a 5j-inch, and so on, alter- 
nating. The outer edges are carried up plumb. The walls are then ready for the 
plastering without lathing. No regard is paid to the openings for windows until 
the sides are laid up to the height of the frames. The openings are sawed out 
and the frames set in. The same with the doors. Finally, cover with siding 
to prevent storms from driving in. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



29 



This makes a cool house iu summer and a warm one in winter. Yet it is not 
so cheaply built as the box frame just described. The use of concrete is con- 
sidered under the head or coi, a. • .-. 11 II, 




Fig 1 . 9. Design or a Plain Country School-house. 

52. In Fig. 9 we have an elevation in perspective of a plain country school - 
house. It corresponds in style and general construction to the requirements ot 
a school of thirty-five, forty-two, forty-eight, fifty- six, or sixty-four pupils. The 
ground plans for these buildings are described in flfl 39 to 43, inclusive. The end 
and side elevations are shown in Figs. 6 and 7. The method of construction is 
given in f[ 49. The appearance of the building will be decidedly improved by 
a good coat of paint, in such colors as will present a pleasing and striking* con- 
trast. Suggestions on this point are given under the head of Color of Cottage3 
and School- buildings. 

53. The sills are two and a half to three feet from the ground, on piers of 
brick or stone. When no better material can be procured, sections of red cedar 
logs or other enduring timber may be used. They are placed six to ten feet 
apart. Their height is sufficient to admit of air in order to prevent the accumu- 
lation of dampness, which, on low lands, occasions mildew, and is prejudicial to 
health. Care will be taken that the tops of the piers all lie in the same hori- 
zontal plane. 

Grading may often be necessary before erecting the building to secure a suffi- 
cient slope from the house to cany off the water at all times. If the soil be 
moist, blind drains must be laid through the yard and play-grounds. The plat- 
forms at the doors will usually be too small for the children to congregate on, 
nor is it desirable that they should gather closely around the school-room door. 
A good coat of gravel on broad walks will be found very useful. Another im- 
provement may be introduced — that of a porch across the whole front end —not 
to do away with the gravel walks, but to form a shelter for those who come 
before the doors are opened, and for protection from the sun when the building 
is located to face the south. It may be observed, however, that if the front 
doors are towards the north, the pupils, when at their seats, will face in that 
direction. Many teachers esteem this an advantage when pursuing the study 
of geography. 



30 SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 

Bill of materials avid work for school-house, 40 by 30 feet ; ceiling, 14 feet ; 

pitch of 'roof '7l> feet. 

Feet. 

Frame, 2 by 6 inches, 1,600 feet long .-. 1, 600 

Partitions, 3 by 4 inches, 560 feet long 560 

Sills, 6 by 8 inches, 140 feet long 560 

Plates, 3 by 6 inches, 140 feet long 210 

Floor timbers, 30 pieces, 3 by 10 inches, 30 feet long 2, 250 

Bearing beam, 1 piece, 6 by 8 inches, 40 feet 160 

Ceiling joists, 13 pieces, 3 by 8 inches, 30 feet long 780 

Rafters, 28 pieces, 3 by S inches, 20 feet long 1, 120 

Flooring, (surface measure) 1, 200 

Siding, (surface measure) 2, 200 

Roof boards 1, 600 

Wainscoting 600 

Boards, for finishing 1, 500 

Total 14, 340 

Shingles 14,000 

Laths 6,000 

Plastering, yards 470 

Brick, (8 by 4 by 2 inches) 1, 500 

Windows 9 

Doors 4 

Nails, kegs ,. 10 

Carpenters' work, days 320 

Masons' work, days 44 

The specifications which follow give some different sizes for the timber from 
the above. Either will answer. The mechanic will exercise his choice in that 
regard. The size fixed upon should be inserted in the specifications. 

54. Specification for school-building of wood, one story high, thirty feet front 
and rear, and forty feet from front to rear, to finish fourteen feet high in the 
clear cf floor and ceiling when done. 

Timbkr. — Floor beams, 3 by 8 inches, placed 20 inches from centres, and will 
rest on 7 by 9 bearing beam extending from front to rear ; this bearing beam to 
rest on five posts, not less than 7 inches at the small end and 5 feet long ; sills, 
6 by 8 inches ; floor beams framed in plates, 4 by 6 inches, well halved together 
at the angles. Rafters, 3 by ? inches, placed 30 inches apart from centres, with 
collars 1^ by 7 inches, 12 feet long, spiked on each pair of rafters. Ceiling joists, 
2 by 8 inches, placed 30 inches from centres, and suspended from the rafters by 
strips of board. All the above will be good, sound yellow pine. 

Siding. — The building to be what is termed box-framed; exterior formed 
with 1^ inch matched white pine plank, 16 feet long, with battens, 2\ by lj 
inch, nailed over each joint. 

Furring. — Ceiling furred for lathing on strips, 1 by 2 inches, placed 12 
inches from centres; horizontal furring nailed on the inside of the siding boards, 
placed 20 inches apart, and on them nail vertical strips of furring, 1 by 2 inches, 
placed 12 inches from centres, and upon these put the lath. 

Partitions. — These set with 3 by 4 joists, placed 12 inches from centres; 
doors placed where shown. These will be 2 feet 10 inches by 7 feet 6 inches. 

Floor. — Lay floor with lj inch yellow pine matched plank, not exceeding 9 
inches in width. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 31 

Roof. — Cover rafters with yellow pine boards not exceeding 3 inches apart, 
and on them put heart pine or cypress shaved shingles, laying them not more 
than one-third of their length to the weather ; the roof to have a pitch of 7£ 
inches to the foot. 

Cornice! — The ends of the rafters to be planed, with neat finishing boards put 
on; they will project 3 feet on all sides. Put in each gable a stationary Vene- 
tian blind in suitable frame, with slats 3 to 4 inches wide. 

Ventilator — Put in ceiling of school-room a fan door, 3 feet square, made 
of £ inch matched pine, in neat frame and made to operate with cords. 

Plastering. — Ceilings and side walls all lathed with good 4 feet sawed lath 
put on with not less than five nailings. All parts of the building lathed will 
have two good and sufficient coats of brown mortar, extra well haired, put on and 
worked down straight and true. 

Chimney, (for stove.) — Construct chimney with brick, make flue 9 by 9 in- 
ches, this commenced 2 feet below line of ceiling and carried 2^ feet above ridge 
of roof, and furnished with stove collar and soot drawer; chimney supported on 
joists standing on the floor. 

Painting and Glazing* — All wood- work will have three coats of light drab 
paint ; cornice, dressings to doors and windows and water table will all be 
painted a dark brown. Sashes all glazed with good American glass, well tinned, 
and set in good putty. Wainscoting in all rooms stained with raw sienna, and 
will have two coats of raw linseed oil. 

Wainscoting. — Sides and front end of school-room ceiled up two feet high 
with half inch yellow pine, not over four inches wide, tongued, grooved, and 
beaded. Back end of school-room and ante-rooms all ceiled with same material, 
and will be four feet high. All wainscoting to be neatly capped with proper 
mouldings. 

Windows. — Each window composed of twelve lights of 12 by 18 inches. 
Sashes one and three-eighths inch thick, hung with cords, weights, and pulleys. 
Frames to be what are termed box frames, all constructed with good, sound, 
seasoned heart pine. All windows neatly cased on inside and outside. 

Doors. — All doors one and a half inch thick, made in six panels, (three wide,) 
and will be two feet ten inches wide and seven feet six inches high, made from 
good, sound, seasoned white pine, hung with cast butts and furnished with cot- 
tage locks and brown mineral knobs. 

Blackboards. — Place these above wainscoting between the windows on the 
sides and the front' end. They will be formed of plaster and colored, and will 
be four feet six inches wide, with neat border of wood on top, and trough at bot- 
tom, four inches wide with moulding, for dust brush, crayons, &c. (See ft 82.) 

For construction of privies, see flfi 70 and 91. 

* For common unplaned boards the following recipe will make a good whitewash : Make 
one bushel of lime into whitewash, in the ordinary way, with about 40 gallons of water ; add 
20 pounds Spanish whiting, 17 pounds rock salt, and 12 pounds of brown sugar. Mix well ; 
use thin. Apply three coats for outside work. 



32 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 




Fig. 10. Design for School-house with Basement. 

55. The elevation in perspective is an agreeable illustration of the effect 
which can be produced by a tasteful application of the rules of architecture 
without materially enhancing the cost of the building. Had the porch, which 
includes the teacher's and ante-rooms, been made an inartistic lean-to, the effect 
would have been strikingly less favorable. All together, the broad, projecting 
roof, the hooded windows, and the variations in the height of the different parts, 
are happily conceived. The style may be used in the smaller as well as larger 
buildings. It may sometimes occur at the time of construction that the large 
recitation room will not be required. The framing of the main part may have 
reference to putting on this as an addition when it will be needed. When the 
recitation room is erected the school officers may employ a competent teacher 
the year round to conduct the school in the main room. When those pupils 
who are obliged to remain at home to assist their parents, or earn their own live- 
lihood a part of the year, are able to attend, an assistant may be employed to 
hear recitations in the room for that purpose. In this way the general progress 
of all the school will be promoted, and its advancement go steadily- forward. 

The plan includes a basement under the whole house. In selecting a site it 
would be well to choose one on a slight declivity, so that the basement may be 
entered on a level with the surface of the ground. It may be fitted up with 
benches, and serve as a place for neighborhood gatherings. The school-room is 
not tlie place for such meetings. The desks often get damaged and the floors 
are left in a condition unfit tor school-room floors. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



33 




Fig. II. Plan of School-house for 84 pupils.* 
School-room, 38 by 36 feet ; A and B, ante-rooms, 9 by 8 feet ; 0, teacher's 
room, 12 by 8 feet ; D, recitation room, 20 by 16 feet ; H H, desks, (No. 4,) 3 
feet 6 inches long ; outside aisles, 3 feet 6 inches ; centre aisle, 2 feet 4 inches ; 
inside aisles, I foot 8 inches ; S S, position of stoves. 

It may be noted in passing that frequent changing of teachers is not conducive 
to the best interests of the school. It takes each new-comer some weeks to as- 
certain the scholastic attainments of all the pupils, and frequently longer to 
establish those intimate relations of sympathy and personal regard which are 
essential to the management of the school by the noblest means and with the 
most exalted aims. 



Bill of materials and work for school-house 46 by 36 feet, with addition 

15 feet. 



Sills, 10 by 3 inches, 280 feet long 

Plates, 6 by 4 inches, 160 feet long 

Beams, 6 by 6 inches, 250 feet long 

Posts, 6 by 6 inches, 225 feet long . . 

Studs and girts, 4 by 3 inches, 4,000 feet long. . . 

Floor joists, 12 by 3 inches, 1,550 feet long 

Ceiling joists, 8 by 3 inches, 1,500 feet long .... 

Rafters, 8 by 3 inches, 1,800 feet long 

Collar beams, 6 by \\ inches, 340 feet long 

Roof boards 

Flooring, (surface measure,) 2,350 {\ added, 600) . 
Siding, (surface measure,) 4,700 (J added, 1,200) 

Battens 

Finishing stuff 

Wainscoting 



18 by 

Feet. 

700 

320 

750 

675 

4,000 

4,650 

3,000 

3,600 

212 

6,000 

2, 950 

5,900 

1,000 

5,500 

800 



Total 40, 057 



Shingles 23, 500 

Doors, (8 by 3 feet) 9 

Windows, 10 by 8 inches, 18 lights 9 

* This design is copied by permission from Johonnot's Country School-houses and modified 
slightly to suit this work. 

3 s c 



34 SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 

Windows, 10 by 8 inches, 12 lights 2 

Window, (mullion) 1 

Bricks, (8 by 4 by 2) 1, 000 

Lath 13,000 

Nails, kegs 13 

Carpenter's work, days 450 

Mason's work, days . , 75 

Specifications. 

56. Excavations. — Here state the depth of excavation after having made 
inspection of the site. The foundations should in all cases be laid below the 
action of frost. The privy Fault is to be 6 feet deep. The earth to be properly 
graded around the foundation walls. Any surplus not required for perfect 
grading to be hauled away. 

Foundation walls are to be well built of (here describe the material,) well 
laid in good lime and sand mortar, commenced below the action of the frost, to be 
1 J foot thick and show 3 feet above grade. The walls to be built to the size of 
the frame, so that the sill shall be flush with the outside of walls. [When there 
is no basement, there is to be a centre wall lengthwise with the building for the 
bearing beam to rest upon. When there is a basement the bearing beam is to 
be supported with standards underneath, which describe.] 

Frame. — The frame is to be of the sizes stated in the bill of materials ac- 
companying this plan. (Describe the kind of timber to be used.) To be of 
good pound stuff without any objectionable defects. Timbers that are to be 
lathed on, to stand not over 16 inches apart from centres. Where black walls 
(fl 82) are to be made, not over 12 inches from centres. Floor joists 2 feet and 
rafters 3 feet from centres. Ceiling joists stay-lathed to rafters. 

Siding to be of heart yellow pine, \\ inch thick and not over 10 inches 
wide. Joints battened, form as shown in figure 8. Siding well nailed to sills 
and plates. (If siding is to be planed, tongued, and matched, let that be 
specified.) 

Roofs to be boarded with sound yellow pine boards, laid with close joints, 
and well nailed. Shingles (here describe kind and quality) laid not over one- 
third their length to the weather. Ridges to be finished with saddle-boards six 
inches wide. 

Cornice. — Ends of rafters to be planed up to the plate and covered with 
matched plank planed on the under side and let into the rafters the thickness of 
the plank. 

Doors and Windows. — (When ready-made doors and windows are used 
reference should be had to the Table of Dimensions, and their size and description 
inserted accordingly.) School-room windows to be of 8 by 10-inch glass, 18 
lighted ; porch and recitation room 12 lights. Sash to be \\ inch thick. 
Glass, the best American, to be bedded and back-puttied, and the sash drawn. 
The front school-room doors 8 by 3 feet, If inch thick. The other doors 7 
by 2 feet 8 inches, 1^ inch thick. The larger doors to be hung with three 
butts each, the smaller with two. One front door to be furnished with a good 
lock, (describe the kind;) all the others with mortise latches and bolts. 

Floors to be of sound, well seasoned yellow pine, matched, tongued and 
grooved, J^inch thick, and not over 10 inches wide; to be well nailed, each 
plank to each joist. 

Steps, of heart yellow pine (if other material, here describe it) 2 inches 
thick, at each outside door. Risers not to be over 7 inches. 

The Chimneys are to be of well burned brick and to receive the stove-pipes 
(if stoves are used) 16 inches below the ceilings. Openings for pipes to be 
fitted with iron thimbles and supplied with close-fitting tin covers. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



35 



Two Ventilating Flubs are to be made, one on each side of the room, as 
directed, and one in the recitation room, each 12 by 12 inches inside, made of 
thoroughly seasoned pine, 1^ inch thick, joints painted with white lead ; to 
unite in the garret and proceed thence to the ventilator top in the roof, which is 
to be of a capacity equal to that of all the flues which empty into it. There is 
to be a register near the floor and one just underneath the ceiling in each flue. 
The openings are to be fitted in such manner that they may be readily closed at 
pleasure. 

Plastering, Painting, and Wainscoting. — (See specifications, fl 70.) 

Privies.— (See fl 91.) 

57. In erecting buildings for more than one school we have the choice of ex- 
tending our plans over more space on the ground, or erecting houses two or 
more stories high. There are many reasons in favor of one-story buildings. 
The pupils of different departments are kept more distinct in going to and from 
their rooms. This promotes quiet and order. Their yards may be separate. 
The noise of upper rooms is avoided, and the collisions and confusion which 
are liable to occur where large numbers are congregated under the same roof 
and go out to play in the same yards are prevented. The difficulties of 
lighting, heating, and ventilating large buildings are much greater than in 
smaller ones. It is, indeed, very rare to find a school -building well ventilated 
which accommodates five hundred or a thousand pupils. 

The plans hereafter given are intended to apply to this class of buildings. 
They are so arranged as to avoid most of the objections noted. 

58. Vaux, in his admirable work 
on Villas and Cottages, gives us the 
accompanying design for a school- 
building, and speaks as follows on 
■ % the improvement of their style of 
f architecture : 

k " Even the school itself, in which 
, the earliest and most active germs 
ggg, of progressive thought are com- 
sp menced, is almost universally a 
naked, shabby structure, without 
a tree or a shrub near it, and is 
Fig. J 2. Vaux's Design for School-house. remarkable chiefly for an air of 

coarse neglect that pervades its whole aspect. The improvement of the school- 
house is probably the most powerful lever that can be applied toward affecting 
a change for the better in the appearance of rural buildings generally. All see 
it, all are interested in it, and all are more or less influenced by its conduct and 
appearance. It is placed under the control of the leading men in each place, 
and it might easily be made the most cheerful and soul- satisfying building in 
the neighborhood, instead of, as at present, a God-forsaken, forlorn-looking affair 
that is calculated to chill the heart and offend the eye of every thoughtful 
beholder. 

" The cost would be utterly incommensurate with the advantage to be obtained. 
An extra hundred dollars at first starting would do much. The roof might 
then have a good projection and be neatly finished. Some sort of a simple porch 
might be added. The chimney might be slightly ornamented. The rest would 
then depend on proportion, color, and surrounding the building from time to time 
with shrubs, creeping vines, and young trees. These, in after years, would offer a 
welcome shade and give an air of domestic comfort and liberal vitality to the 
whole effect. A similar result, through precisely similar means, would probably, 
in course of time, be arrived at in small cottages in the vicinity, and as success 
would be cheap and invariable, the example would have a fair chance of spread- 




36 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



ing. Such a building admits of endless variety of design, and is within the 
reach of every civilized community." 

If a community have a poor scbool-house they will be almost sure to have a 
poor school. If they would have a better school they must provide a better 
house. The expense may excite opposition for a time, but it will not be long be- 
fore those who now despise the school will begin to honor it, and those who hate 
it and turn from it in disgust will learn to love and cherish it. 



D 



DDD 
QDDD 




d d 



DD 




DDDDQDD 
DDD 



Fig. 13. Ground j>lan for two Schools. 



DDDDDDI 
O'DDDDQDI 



Explanation of cut. — A A, school-rooms for 56 pupils each; size of rooms, 
29 by 29 feet ; outside aisles, 3£ feet ; inside aisles, 2 feet ; front and rear aisles 
each, 3 feet ; E E, boys' ante-rooms, each 8 by 7 feet ; D D, girls' ante-rooms, 
each 8 by 7 feet; 0, teachers' room, 12 by 12 feet; outside measurement, 72 
by 30 feet. 

59. This plan is the result of combining two buildings like the one described 
in fl 52, and shown in Fig. 9. The ante-rooms are retained — those for each 
school being separate; but the two teachers' rooms are united in one, forming a 
pleasant recitation room for both schools. There are windows in each of the 
ante-rooms, and inside windows or fan-lights between them and the teachers' 
room. Through these air and light can be admitted. The room is warmed by 
a small stove. One chimney standing iu the centre may be made to answer for 
all the stoves. Should fireplaces be used there would also be a chimney at each 
end for them. 

This building is of the same general construction as shown in Fig. 9. The 
ground plan is eight feet shorter than twice the length of that design. The 
building materials may be easily estimated. The siding for the two ends is 
saved ; also a section of both sides eight feet wide, and of the roof fourteen feet. 
When the size and situation of the lot favors, the house may be set end to the 
street, to give separate yards for the boys and girls. 

As a matter of economy, and perhaps convenience, the outer walls, enclosing 
the ante-rooms D D and E E, may be omitted. The spaces may stand as open 
porches, or be enclosed with a balustrade. Hooks or strong wooden pegs may be 
put up on strips within the recess for the hats and shawls. It would also be ad- 
visable to divide the area by a partition of open lattice-work. Then each school 
would have its ante-room separate ; otherwise there would be likely to arise 
some annoyance by the mem I ers of one school interfering with the articles 
which belong to the other. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



37 



60. Since it is a common practice to buy the doors, windows, &c, in the 
markets, we have added for information a table of dimensions of ready-made 
sashes, blinds, and doors : 



Sash for Windows (twelve 

LIGHTED.) 


Blinds. 


Doors. 












Size of glass. 


Dimensions. 




Style. 


Dimensions. 




ft. in. ft. in. 




H in: 


ft. 


in. ft. in. 


7 by 9 


2 1 by 3 6 


7 by 9 


6 panels G 


2 


by 6 6 


8 by 10 


2 4 by 3 10 


8 by 10 


6 panels G 


2 


2 by 6 6 


8 by 12 


2 4 by 4 6 


9 by 12 


6 panels G 


2 


4 by 6 6 


9 by 1? 


2 7 by 4 2 


9 by 13 


6 panels G 


2 


6 by 6 6 


9 by 12 


2 7 by 4 6 


9 by 14 


6 panels G 


2 


8 by 6 6 


9 by 13 


2 7 by 4 10 


9 by 15 


6 panels G 


2 


by 6 8 


9 by 14 


2 7 by 5 2 


10 by 12 


6 panels G 


2 


2 by 6 8 


9 by 15- 


2 7 by 5 6 


10 by 13 


6 panels G 


2 


4 by 6 8 


10 by 12 


2 10 by 4 6 


10 by 14 


6 panels G 


2 


6 by 6 8 


10 by 13 


2 10 by 4 10 


10 by 15 


6 panels G 


2 


8 by 6 8 


10 by 14 


2 10 by 5 2 


10 by 16 


H in: 






10 by 15 


2 10 by 5 6 




6 panels G 


2 


6 by 6 6 


10 by 16 


2 10 by 5 10 




6 panels O G 


2 


8 by 6 8 


10 by 17 


2 10 by 6 2 




6 panels G 


2 


8 by 6 10 


10 by 18 


2 10 by 6 6 




6 panels G 


2 


10 by 6 10 








6 panels O G 


2 


10 by 7 








6 panels G 


3 


by 7 








li in: 












Moulded one side, 


2 


6 by 6 6 








raised panels on 


2 


8 bv 6 6 








other. 


2 
2 


8 by 6 8 
6 by 6 8 




Fig. 14. Plan for Village School. 



38 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES 



61. By adopting a different arrangement of the rooms, as shown in the ahove 
ground plan, we give an opportunity for the architect to display much taste, 
and construct a building that will be an ornament to any village or neighbor- 
hood. . 

Explanation of cut.— A and B, school-rooms, 29 by 27 \ feet; 0, recitation 
room, 13 by 8 feet ; E E, girls' ante-rooms, 7 by 7 feet, opening from F, porch, 
13 by 8 feet; D D, boys' ante-rooms, 7 by 7 feet, opening from G- Gr, porches, 
7 by 5 feet; size of building on the ground, 56 by 37£ feet. 

When the schools do not require the room C for purposes of recitation, it 
might be made a retiring room for those who wish to study when the rest are 
at play. But the school-room should not be a place for noise and confusion at 
any time. 




Fig. 15. Front elevation for Village School. 

The principal object of this design is to present a finer style of external finish. 
Those who to-day may have all they can do to provide themselves and their 
families with the necessaries of life will soon have amassed wealth, and will wish 
to expend something on the decorations of their school-houses. The ground 
plan includes essentially the same advantages as those of the preceding, though 
differently arranged. The arcade or recess F between the ante-rooms, the stoop 
at either end, and the ante-rooms themselves might have been provided for under 
a plain lean-to roof. The building would then have looked more like a stable 
than a hall of learning. The tower is for a bell. One weighing about two 
hundred pounds would summon the children of the village at the hour of school, 
and secure promptitude in their attendance. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES 



39 




Fig. 16. Side elevation for Village School. 

The mechanic will get a clearer view of the design of the building from the 
two elevations than from an elevation in perspective. From these he may draw 
enlarged working plans. The ground plan shows two fireplaces, requiring for 
each a chimney. In case stoves are nsed one chimney with separate flues may 
suffice. It might stand in the teacher's or recitation room, which may be en- 
larged, and perhaps should be, to about 20 by 15 feet. 

The directions for tinning under design No. 1, for Normal school, apply to 
tinning the valleys of the roof of this house. The general construction is simple, 
and scarcely needs further specifications. 

The amount of materials required for this building will not vary much in total 
cost from that of the last preceding plan. It will take a few more shingles, and 
will on the whole be rather more expensive. _ But how much more beautiful is 
its appearance. 

The work of education is not limited to teaching to read, write, and cipher, 
nor to the pursuit of higher branches of literature alone. It descends to every- 
thing with which we have to do, to our houses and our dress, as well as our 
scholastic attainments and our manners. To be complete it must be gener- 
ous, impressing not merely a few individuals with its blesssings, but reaching 
out and stamping communities and States with its benign influence. 



40 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



Fig. 17. Ground plan of two-story School Building. 

62. The cut represents the ground plan of a two-story building. The two 
floors have a similar arrangement of desks and seats when both are needed for 
school purposes. 

A, school-room, 30^ by 29 feet; B, teacher's room, 15 by 9 feet; C, girls' 
ante-room, 14 by 9 feet; D, boys' ante- room, 14 by 9 feet; G, girls' portico, 15 
by 8 feet ; E, boys' stairway, width, 4 feet ; P, girls' stairway, width, 4 feet ; 
width of main part, 30 feet; total length, 50 feet; ceilings, 14 feet. 

The arrangement of desks is for fifty-six pupils to each room. In front of the 
desks, next to the teacher's platform, is a bench for classes during recitations. 
The chief alteration in size is the addition of four feet to either side at the front 
to give room for stairs, which also compels an addition to the length of about 
ten feet. The stairway and teacher's room are lighted by windows in the front, 
which are so constructed as to add to the architectural effect. The portico G 
is a pleasant waiting place for the girls who may arrive earlier than the school 
hour, and at the recess on stormy days when it is not fitting for them to play 
out of doors. 











1 






" 




















1 





















Fig. 18. Plan of second story for Chapel. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



41 




The plan is intended to meet a large class of cases where both a chapel and 
school are wanted in the same building. One flight of stairs 
is changed so that the recess for the girls is also the platform 
from which the stairs ascend. The entrances at I L and H are 
convenient for the audience. 

In seating a chapel or an assembly hall the space allowed for 
a bench or slip is 2 feet 10 inches, and for each adult on a 
seat 18 inches. 

When a tower or belfry is wanted, one of the projections 
for a stairway may be carried up for that purpose. The ace m- 
panying design, by Vaux, is suggestive. It may conceal a ven- 
tilator top if desired. 



lll"A 

2. 

Fig. 19. Belfry. 

Bill of materials and work for school-house, 50 by 30 feet ; 2 stories high ; 

ceiling lifeet. 

Feet. 

Frame, 2 by 6 inches, 5,600 feet long 5, 600 

Sills, 6 by 8 inches, 200 feet long 800 

Plates, 3 by 6 inches, 200 feet long 300 

Girders, l£ by 5 inches, 200 feet long 125 

Floor timbers, 50 pieces, 3 by 12 inches, 30 feet long 4, 500 

Floor timbers, 28 pieces, 3 by 12 inches, 38 feet long 3, 192 

Cords, roof, 2 pieces, 2 by 3 inches, 30 feet long 30 

Cords, roof, 1 piece, 8 by 8 inches, 38 feet long 204 

Rafters, 4 pieces, 6 by S inches, 20 feet long 320 

Rafters, 2 pieces, 6 by 8 inches, 24 feet long 192 

Rafters, 3 by 6 inches, 1,000 feet long 1, 500 

Purlins, 6 by 6 inches, 300 feet long 900 

Bearing beams, 2 pieces, 8 by 12 inches, 50 feet long 800 

Partitions, 4 by 3 inches, 1,700 feet long 1, 700 

Flooring, surface measure, 3,100 + J „ 3, 875 

Siding, surface measure, 5,600 + ^ 7, 000 

Roof boards 3, 000 

Boards for cornice, base, stairs, &c 4, 000 

TOWER. 

Timber, feet 2, 000 

Plank and boards 2, 000 

Spikes and nails, kegs 2 

Carpenter's work, days 30 



42 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



School-rooms, each 30£ by 

29 feet ; A and B, ante-rooms, 
17 by 13 feet; C, closets 
for hats, &c, 8 by 3£ feet ; 
E, recitation room, 17 by 10 
feet; size of building, 80 by 

30 feet; projections for the 
stairways, 17 by 6 feet ; ceil- 
ings, 14 feet. 

64. After what has already 
been said in the description 
of plans no further comments 
are needed respecting the 
present design. It would 
suggest itself to any one ac- 
quainted with school manage- 
ment that the doors to the re- 
citation room should be placed 
so as to be entered directly 
from the school-room floor in- 
stead of the teacher's plat- 
form. The closets will be 
separated from the halls by 
low plank partitions, not over 
seven feet in height. The re- 
citation rooms will be lighted 
and ventilated by fan-win- 
dows placed above these par- 
titions. 

This design is well adapted 
for a large village school. It 
would require four teachers — 
one to each of the rooms. 
When the number should in- 
crease beyond the capacity of 
the building, some of the ad- 
vanced pupils might study 
mostly at home, and attend 
recitations in the recitation 
rooms. When filled it would 
accommodate two hundred and twenty-four pupils. With this number an ad- 
vance might be made in grading. 

Where there are twice this number of pupils in a village or thickly settled 
rural district, many prefer to have smaller buildings for the primary pupils, lo- 
cated so as to gather in enough for a school of that grade. Then collect all the 
higher grades into the principal building, which would be the high school, and 
should be centrally located. 

A side elevation, Fig. 21, shows the style of frame proposed for this building. 
65. The balloon frame is a favorite style of constructing medium-sized 
buildings in the West. It has of late grown in favor in the East. It is less 
expensive than the old style of posts and beams, and is rapidly erected. The 
frame is composed of 2 by 5 joists in the smaller buildings ; in the larger, 3 by 
6 joists. Nails and spikes are used instead of mortise and tenon. By a judi- 
cious use of them every part of the frame may be fastened firmly together. 
After the sheathing is on and well nailed, a building of this kind would blow 
over bodily before its sides would be crushed in or " blown down." 




Fig. 20. Ground plan for Union School. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 43 

Directions. — Frame the sills and floor timbers the same as in fl 49. Before 
laying the floor timbers determine on the distance between the studs and place 
them to correspond. They should be either twelve or sixteen inches apart from 
centre to centre, in order that the lath, which is four feet long, may break joints 
on the joists. 

Some builders mortise the sills to receive the feet of the studs. This is a 
mistake. It is better only to nail them. Out the studs to the length required 
before raising them. No beam is used for a girder. Instead of this an inch 
board, six or eight inches wide, is taken. When 3 by 4 studs are used gain them 
half an inch ; 2 by 6 or 3 by 6 joists are gained an inch for the board which 
it is to serve as a girder. When this is done, set up a stud by the side of each 
floor timber. Toe them down to the sills and spike them to the floor timbers. 
Plumb and stay them. 

A corner post is formed by spiking together two, or if the size require, three, 
of the joists. 

The ends of the buildings are set up the same way, except that the girders 
are gained in as high as the top instead of the bottom of the floor timbers. 

The next thing is to set the partitions, which run crosswise of the floor timbers. 
Those that run with the floor timbers may be put up after the timbers are in 
place. La} 7 a floor timber against each stud and spike it to the stud. Let their 
ends go out flush with the outside of the frame. 

It is much better to have the stuff for the studs sawed to order their full length 
than to be obliged to splice them But if some are too short, square the ends 
to be spliced, stay the lower portion, and set the upper joist on it without regard 
to length, and stay it. After the timbers for the second floor are laid, cut a strip 
of board the right length for a measure to cut the studs by. Mark each one 
separately by this and saw to the line. This is a better way than using a chalk 
line, because the line sags. In splicing the joist, again we say, square the ends 
of both, so that each shall fit exactly to the other. To make the joint perfectly 
secure take two strips of boards three or four feet long and of even widths with 
the stud ; nail one on each of the two sides in line with the row of studs. 

This caution will naturally suggest itself: When short studs must be used 
they should not be placed all together, but should be separated by one or more 
full-length timbers. 

In setting up the studs and in sheathing no regard is paid to the openings for 
doors and windows. This is taken into consideration at a later period of the work, 
before siding up. They may then be sawed out wherever the plan requires. 

When the frame is not to be sheathed before the siding is put on, it may be 
braced in a very simple and effective manner. The direction of braces is shown 
in the engraving. Also the method of framing a tower. The design, Pig. 19, 
is preferred to the one here given. The roof is rather too flat for shingles. The 
width of building is thirty feet. The pitch of roof should be seven and a half 
to ten feet. 



44 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 




For a brace we take a strip of board six inches wide, lay it on the outside of 
the joists ; mark them by it; gain out the studs the thickness of the board-brace: 
fit its ends to their places ; nail it to each of the studs. The longer the brace 
the more effective it is. ] twill be perceived, by a glance at the cut, that braces 
might be carried up the entire height of the side from sill to plate without inter- 
fering with the windows. With the addition of a few such braces the frame 
would be very strong, much stronger than a frame constructed after the old 
methods. 

It is not necessary to go minutely into the description of all the larger plans 
which follow. Their construction requires enlarged drawings, in detail, by a 
skilful architect who is acquainted with the erection of this class of buildings. 
Attention is directed to the comprehensive specifications given in fl 70 for a large 
and expensive building. The combination of several school-rooms in one edifice 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 45 

admits of a great variety of arrangements, and much skill may be displayed in 

their design. It may be mentioned, in passing, that a leading feature should 
always be, in hot climates, to expose the several rooms to the free passage of 
prevailing air currents. For this reason, if for no other, they ought not to be 
built in solid squares, as is commonly practiced in the North. 

Bill of materials and work for a two-story balloon-foamed building 80 by 30 
feet ; ceilings, \4feet; projection of roof, 3 feet ; pitch, 7^ feet. 

Feet. 

Frame, 2 by 6 inches, 8,050 feet long 8, 050 

Sills, 6 by 8 inches, 254 feet long 1, 016 

Plates, 3 by 6 inches, 254 feet long 381 

Girders, l£ by 5 inches, 160 feet long 90 

Floor timbers, (96 pieces,) 3 by 10 inches, 30 feet long 7, 200 

Floor timbers, (30 pieces,) 3 by 10 inches, 27 feet long 2, 025 

Floor timbers, (30 pieces,) 3 by 10 inches, 17 feet long 1, 275 

Ceiling joists, (28 pieces,) 3 by 8 inches, 30 feet long 1, 680 

Rafters, (58 pieces,) 3 by 8 inches, 20 feet long 2, 320 

Diagonal rafters, (8 pieces,) 4 by 8 inches, 25 feet long 532 

Girder, (1 piece,) 8 by 10 inches, SO feet long 532 

Girder, (2 pieces,) 8 by 10 inches, 32 feet long 426 

Partitions, 3 by 4 inches, 2,400 feet long 2, 400 

Roof-boards 3,500 

Flooring, (surface measure, ) 4,800 {\ added, 1,200) 6, 000 

Siding 8, 000 

Wainscoting 2, 700 

Finishing stuff 4, 000 

Total - 52, 127 

Shingles 30, 000 

Lath 30, 000 

Windows, 10 by 16 inches, 24 lights 24 

Windows, 9 by 16 inches, 18 lights 8 

Window blinds, pairs 32 

Doors, 3 by 7 feet 12 

Doors, 2 feet 10 inches by 7 feet 8 

Doors, double, 5 feet 4 inches by 9 feet 2 

Nails, kegs 20 

Bricks, (8 by 4 by 2) 4,000 

* Plastering, yards 1> 960 

Carpenters' work, days 700 

Masons' work, days 100 

* No allowance for blackboards and wainscoting iu amount given. 



46 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



□ EZJ □ □ 

mmi i r~ i 

□ □■□ □ 

□ man 
en nu cm rzi 
cd □ nu tzzi 

CD HD tZZl □ 



nana 
□ □ □ □ 



v 



'DDDDDDD 
.'DDDDODD 
DDDDODD 
DDDDD 



□QDDODD 
DDDODDD 

DDDDODD 

DDDDDDD 



Fig. 22. Ground plan for High School 




Fig. 23. Ground plan for Normal School No. 1. — Scale, 24 feet to 1 inch. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



47 



66. It is difficult to group a large number of rooms together iu the same build- 
ing without obstructing the free circulation of air through some of them. The 
cut (Fig. 22) shows a combination of three school-rooms, with principal's office and 
a large recitation room for the advanced school adjoining. The yards for boys 
and girls are on either side of the house. They have separate stairways. 
The stairs are placed in the centre of the hall to allow a full passage of air on 
either side. The halls afford ample room for closets for cloaks and hats. The 
second floor has two school-rooms identical with those in the front on the ground 
plan. A chapel is over the back hall, the large school-room, and the side rooms. 
The seats are arranged in the same manner as represented in Fig 28. There 
may be an upright plank partition seven feet high across the rear end of the 
chapel, corresponding to the partition on the ground floor directly underneath it. 

67. We have here (Fig. 23) an approved plan for a small Normal School. The 
rooms A and B are separated by folding-doors, and maybe used for the experimen- 
tal ^department of the school ; Gr, halls leading to the rooms ; F F, principal's office 
and recitation room ; H, front hall with stairs leading to second floor ; C and D, 
school-rooms. The two front rooms over and D are planned in the same 
manner. The remainder of the second story is devoted to a chapel, as shown in 
Fig. 28. The second floor is also reached by outside stairs on the piazzas. A 
library may be arranged for in the front part of the upper hall between the 
school-rooms, and light admitted to the back hall through glass windows in the 




Fig. 24. Front elevation for Normal School No. 1. Elevations and accompanying direc- 
tions by Littell, architect. 



48 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



separating partition. All the rooms are arranged with a regard to the greatest 
amount of air, and at the same time are shielded from the excess of light and heat. 

Figures 22, 23, and 26 are modifications of the same general outline. 

The cultivated eye will detect in this design much to admire. It was planned 
for site on a battle-field, looking southward up a magnificent river. All the 
pupils when at their desks will face the north. The piazza in front will shield 
the building from the severest rays of the sun. The attic may be reserved for 
the janitor and for enlarging the school. The tower is to be supplied with a bell 
weighing over three hundred pounds. 

It is not an uncommon practice in the South for stairs to ascend from the 
piazza. The piazza itself is one of the much needed devices as a protection 
against the heat, and there is no strong objection against the above arrangement. 
In the plans proposed it saves much room inside the house. 




Fig. 25. Side elevation for Normal School No. 1 . 

The side elevation represents the position of the stairs by which the second 
story is reached by the pupils. A landing half-way up breaks the continuous 
effort of rising, and is therefore an advantage. The pupils who belong in the 
rooms of the second story have no occasion to go on the piazza with those of the 
first. This conduces to quietness and good order at the gathering and dismissal 
of school. In some of the large cities it has become customary to use the attic 
for one of two purposes, either as an assembly hall or for a play-room for girls 
in bad weather. In the design the ceiling would admit of this arrangement. 
A few more windows might be added. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 49 

68. General Remarks on Materials and Construction. — The sills are 
to be supported by piers of brick-work, hard, well-burned brick, nowhere more 
than 10 feet between centres. These piers to be 20 inches square and to rest 
on a concrete bed 10 inches thick and 3 feet square. 

Frame. — The sills should be of yellow pine, approximately 8 by 14 inches ; 
the corner posts 8 by 12 inches ; girts 4 by 14 inches, into which the second 
and third story joists are framed ; intermediate posts, 4 by 8 inches ; studs, 3 
by 4 inches ; rafters, 3 by 7 inches ; floor joists, 3 by 12 inches. The veranda 
posts should be about 10 inches square, corners chamfered ; the arched braces 
6 inches thick. The railing to be 5 by 6 inches square, upper and lower rails 
with 2 inches thick pierced filling between. 

Sheathing and Floors. — The outside of building should be sheathed with 
diagonal sheathing an inch and a fourth thick, well nailed, of yellow pine plank or 
similar wood. The under side of floors should be furred off with 2 by l^r inch 
strips set 12 inches between centres ready for lathing. The floors should be 
deadened with mortar laid on boards, cut in between the joists, resting on fillets 

1 nailed to the side of the joists. 
The Roof should be sheathed on the flat part with 1^ plank laid as close as 
possible, tongued and grooved if it can be done. The flat should be tinned with 
good roofing tin. This should run over the edges of flat, and lap 8 inches on 
'■ the inclined sides. The veranda roof and deck of bell turret are finished in 
i the same manner. The inclined sides of roof should be shingled on shingle 
strips 2£ inches wide, set as far between centres as the shingles show to the 
weather. The hips and valleys are to be covered with tin at least 18 inches 
wide, turned over a strip and under the shingles. Around the chimneys and dor- 
mers there should also be careful flashing. A gutter is to be formed at the bottom 
of the pitched roof, and to have false bottoms to throw water leader. Said 
gutter to be lined with tin, turned up at least a foot higher than the top line of 
gutter under the shingles. There should be six 3 \ by 4 inch tin leaders at 
angles of building running straight to the ground. 

The Windows should be rising sash, except in those of the assembly-room, 
i which should be casement and glazed with first quality American sheet glass. 

The Stairs to second story should have twenty-five risers and heavy balus- 
trade, continued string stairs. 

Doors in first story should be ten feet high or thereabouts, and If inch 
| thick, except sliding door, which should be 2\ inches thick. Outside doors 2\ 
inches thick. 

Painting.— The buiding should be painted a quiet gray tint for the body of 
I the wall, and a quiet purplish brown for the trimmings, and sanded. The 
t shingles and tin should be painted slate color. 

A building of this kind should be erected under the directions of an acconi- 
| plished architect. 
4 s c 



50 



SCH-OOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 




Fig. 26. Ground plan of Normal School No. 2. 

69. This building was designed for a situation where the prevailing winds 
were from the south and blew directly off the ocean. It was desirable to secure 
their favoring breath through each of the rooms. Hence the projection of the 
rooms allowing space at the side or over the top of the door for windows or fan- 
lights to admit the southerly winds. 

The rooms and D are seated for 48 pupils each, at single desks. They 
constitute the preparatory department. The two corresponding rooms on the 
second floor, for the graduating class, are of the same size and seated in the same 
manner. The four rooms A E and B ¥ are for the Model or Experimental 
school, in which the graduating class will practice in the art of teaching under 
the instruction of an accomplished teacher. The rooms are for forty pupils 
each, and are separated by folding- doors. The advantage of this is to enable 
the principal instructor to give general exercises to two of these schools at a 
time. H H are the positions for hat closets for the boys, and for the cloak 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



51 



rooms for girls. The figures denote the positions of the chimneys and venti- 
lators. V V, also, are for ventilating the four principal school-rooms. The hall 
G is of ample width. The principal's office is lighted through the glass parti- 
tion between it and the vestibule, also by fan-lights connecting with the school- 
rooms. The front windows of the vestibule are not shown in the engraving. 
On the second floor, directly over the vestibule, is a library ; in rear of that the 
lady teachers' toilet. The building is calculated for three hundred and fifty 
pupils. 









IffRfhi 


L 



™ 




bo 



52 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 




A 









1 








1 








Z3 






1 


i 








i 








1 








i 








i 








ZH 








1 






1 


1 






1 




■x 

— — D 



The ground plan shows the general form of the building and the side eleva- 
tion, the ascent by the stairs from the ground, &c. Our space would not admit of 
complete illustration ; but the specifications which follow give definite descrip- 
tions of the construction, and will assist in a full understanding of the entire 
plan. The front is entirely plain, without decoration except that which the 
veranda and projection at the entrance give. Probably a little more attention 
to artistic effect would have benefited the design without materially increasing 
the expense. 

That portion of the sec- 
ond story over the Model 
School rooms and the hall 
G is arranged with settees 
to accommodate all the 
pupils of the school. The 
platform is elevated sev- 
eral feet, and is large 
enough for the teachers 
to occupy during morning 
exercises. The pupils 
from the lower room enter 
the chapel by the doors 
A and E ; those from 
the upper, through the 
oiher doors, B, 0, and D. 
(See fl 63 ) 

The basement is open 
to the yard by the arches 
between the piers. It is 
divided by a wall running 
lengthwise, and forms a 
most excellent shelter for 
the pupils from the hot 
sun and showers. The 
wash-rooms, supplied with an abundance of water from the cistern, enable the 
teachers to enforce cleanliness. 

The specifications which follow will serve not only as a guide in the con- 
struction of large buildings, but they contain valuable directions applicable to 
those of a smaller class, whether of brick or wood. 

70. Specification of the work and material for erecting a brick school-house, all 
to be finished as per plans and this specification, in every part complete. 

Dimensions.— The building in front to be sixty-seven feet, and to extend back 
thirty-three feet, same width. Then a recess of ten feet, to be formed on each 
side, making the rear part of the building forty-seven feet wide by fifty-five feet 
deep ; total depth of eighty-eight feet, to have two stories and basement. The 
basement to be eight feet from the top of the ground to ceiling, the openings to 
be arched, as shown on plan. The first story to be thirteen feet from floor to 
ceiling, and the second story to be fifteen feet in the clear when finished. The 
roof to have one and a half inch to the foot descent from centre to each side. 
Put up a belfry on roof, as shown on plans, 7 by 7 feet, octagonal form, ten feet 
in height. 

Fences.— A front fence to be put up the whole front of lot, with gateways as 
marked on plan, with brick posts of good, sound, hard-burned brick well laid in 
cement, neatly coped with Milestone, four inches thick, finely axed. Posts to be 
placed about eight feet from centres, and to be eighteen inches square. Also 



E 



D 



Fig. 28. Chapel. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES, 53 

build into the posts, where required, strong wrought-iron eyes, well anchored in 
the posts, to hinge the gates. Pickets of fence to be two inches square. Rails 
6 by 3 inches, mortised to receive the pickets ; all to be smoothly planed. 

A board fence is to be put on each side and rear of lot ; also from the centre 
of the back of building to the line of lot. Posts to be 6 by 6 inches, set 2 feet 
6 inches in the ground. Boards to be one and a quarter inch thick, smoothly 
planed, well nailed to the rails. Said fence in rear and on sides to be seven 
feet high. 

Trenches to be excavated two feet below ground under all walls, four feet 
in width. All earth excavated from trenches, vaults, &c, not used for building 
purposes, nor required for grading, to be carted away from the premises, and the 
whole to be left clean. Also all dirt, refuse, and rubbish to be removed from 
premises when the work is completed. 

The Foundations are to be laid two feet below the level of the ground, on a 
bed of hard yellow pine plank four feet wide and four inches thick, firmly bedded 
and levelled, laid close joints across the trench in the best manner to receive the 
brick walls. Piers to be of hard-burned brick, laid in the best manner to sup- 
port the posts of platforms and stairs. 

Brick Work. — The walls below a level of the ground to be three feet thick, 
well laid up with good, sound, hard burnt brick. All outside work to be of the 
best quality hard-burned gray brick. Walls filled with good hard-brown brick. 
All of the walls to be eighteen inches thick from the level of the ground to the 
top of second story* floor beams, except the interior wall running aci'oss the 
front part of the building, which will be twelve inches thick from the foun- 
dation wall to top of first story floor. All the residue of walls to be twelve 
inches thick, carried up above the roof, as shown on the plans. All flues to be 
carried up as shown on plans, neatly pargetted on the inside, and carried up 
above the roof to a suitable height and coped. All brick for the side walls to be 
of the best quality of hard-burned brick, well laid in the best quality of lime 
and sand mortar, above ground full flush joints to be well bound every fifth 
course. The outside joints to be struck full flush, neat joints. Walls to be 
well anchored to the beams with iron anchors placed about six feet apart. The 
rear wall to be carried up above the roof, coped with bluestone coping, neatly 
pointed with cement ; said coping to be put on after the tin roofing is turned 
over the wall. 

Paving. — On each side and in rear of building, as far as the lot extends, the 
ground is to be paved with hard-burned brick, laid herring bone, close joints — 
none to be laid in front, except on the entrance and the side- walk in front of 
the lot. 

Gutters to be formed in the yard of suitable sizes, with brick laid in cement 
to drain the water. Put up bluestone sills and lintels to all the windows, and 
outside dooi'S of good, sound bluestone, neatly axed ; also put up bluestone steps 
and platform to front door stoop. Platform to be two feet wide, running under 
the door sill one and a half inch, making two feet one and a half inch wide. 
Steps to be eight feet in length, twelve inches wide, laid on brick foundation, 
arched, as shown on plan. Put up on each side of said stoop a neat substantial 
iron railing, with newels, &c, complete. 

A Cistern to be built in rear of lot, ten by fifteen feet, oval form, six feet 
deep, to be built with good, sound hard brick laid in cement, and plastered with 
cement out and inside; 12-inch outside walls, with 4-inch centre walls, properly 
prepared to filter the water passing from one side to the other. The bottom to 
be laid double thick, well cemented, the top to be neatly arched, and to have a 
bluestone neck rabbeted together, the arch to be well grouted with cement on 
top, and the whole warranted water-tight; also place a piece of bluestone in the 
bottom where the water falls into it. 

* In smaller buildings the walls need not be over twelve or nine inches thick. 



54 SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 

Furring, Lathing, and Plastering. — The walls to be furred with one by- 
two inch furring strips, nailed on wall strips in wall twelve inches from centres. 
Also, the ceilings to be cross-furred crosswise of beams, twelve inches from 
centres, except the ceilings of basement, which are to be lathed on the beams; 
and all to be lathed with 1^-inch sawed lath, well nailed, and plastered with two 
good coats of the best quality of lime, with clean long hair and sharp sand 
mortar mixed in proper proportions ; and the whole to be finished with one 
good coat of white hard finish mortar put on in the best manner, complete in 
every part. 

Carpenters' Work. — The floor beams of first and second stories to be 3 by 
14 inches of good sound timber, free from any objectionable defects, placed on 
the walls as they progress, not over fifteen inches from centres, with two rows 
of cross-bridging on each side of partition, and to have anchor strips let in three 
beams from wall opposite each pier. All the floor beams, which are anchored 
in the wall, to lap over the partitions, and be spiked firmly together. Beams 
under roof to be 3 by 10 inches, laid not over eighteen inches apart, framed into 
a centre, girded 8 by 10 inches, running the length of the rear part of said build- 
ing, supported by three neat iron columns, five inches diameter, equally divided 
in assembly room. The rafters to be 3 by 8 inches, placed and footed on the 
end of each beam, bolted together with one-inch bolts with large heads, screws, 
and nuts, and large washer-plates, supported and braced, as shown on plans, 
with iron bolts one inch thick securing each rafter to the beam, as shown. All 
the above timbers to be of good, sound lumber, free from any objectionable de- 
fects, framed in every part in the best manner, neatly levelled on the walls. 
Furnish and put up all centres, wall strips, wall blocks, wooden lintels, and loose 
furring required by the masons. 

The stoop platforms are to be framed, one with a front plate 4 by 9 inches 
and cross-ties placed about 6 feet apart, 4 by 8 inches, and filled in with 3 by 8 
inch beams, placed 2 feet from centre. The cross-ties are to run in the wall 4 
inches, and be well fastened with iron hold-fasts built in the walls as they are 
put up. Said platforms to be supported on posts 8 by 8 inches with neat smooth 
caps and bases as shown. 

Window Frames and Sashes. — All window frames, as shown on plans, are 
to be box frames with 1^-inch pulley stiles, f-inch outside and inside casing, 
If by 1;J inch hanging stiles, l\ rabbeted sills ; all to be fitted with stop and 
parting strips and lf-inch iron, best quality, frame pulleys, 4 pulleys to each 
frame. All are to be put together in the best manner, placed in the wall three 
feet from floor. Sashes to be If inch thick, 12 by 15 inch glass, glazed with 
thick German glass, free from burns, stains, or other defects, well bradded and 
puttied. All are to be double-hung with best quality of sash ord and cast-iron 
weights, properly balanced and neatly fitted to the frames. The windows are 
to be trimmed inside, also all inside doors, with a f-iuch returned bead casing, 
1^-inch oge back-moulding, and 1-inch back bands, 6 inches wide when finished ; 
all to be neatly fitted to the walls. All doors to have 1^-inch jambs rabbeted 
to receive the doors. The jambs to be well blocked to receive the screws of 
butts and nosings. Put up inside all around the walls and partitions f-inch 
narrow tongued and grooved boards for wainscoting, not over 5 inches wide, 
placed upright and finished with a neat 1^-inch nosing and core cap on top of 
the same, (all the partitions to be of 3 by 6 studs 12 inches apart, properly 
braced to carry posts in assembly hall in second story.) Window trimmings to 
be finished on said cap, and all around the bottom of wainscoting running all 
around the various rooms and halls put down f-inch base with oval moulding, 8 
inches wide, neatly fitted to the floor. 

Venetian Blinds to be placed inside of each window 1^ inch thick, made 
flatwise, to be cut in centre and back flap and hung with suitable sized butts, 
and fastened in the centre with hook, latch, and staples in the usual manner. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 55 

Sliding Doors. — la the first story a glass sliding partition is to be put across 
both rooms in the rear part, as marked on plans, to be divided in four sections in 
width in each room. Sliding doors to be nine feet high, and above the doors to 
ceilings is to be filled in with sashes. All to be put up with suitable frames, &c. 
Doors to slide on brass ways screwed down to floor, and 8-inch brass sheaves let 
in the bottom of the doors in the usual manner. Doors to be lj inch thick, 
panelled and moulded below the sashes about three feet in height from floors. 
All the above to be put up in the best approved manner and complete in every 
part. 

Doors and Fan-lights. — The outside doors are to be 2 inches thick, double 
fold, as shown on plans, 5 feet wide, 8 feet 6 inches in height, with cast-iron 
filigree panels above and small 1^-inch sashes inside, hung with 3 by 3 inch butts, 
and fastened with buttons. Also, to have circular fan-lights on front and square 
fan-lights on side doors, as shown. Strong and suitable jambs to be fastened to 
the walls, trimmed inside same as inside door and window trimmings, and with 
a large moulding outside. Said doors are to be moulded on the lower panels 
with large raised mouldings, and on inside same as other inside doors. 

Sash-doors are to be put in the principal's office and in teacher's room in second 
story ; also two sashes in each side partition in these rooms for borrowed lights. 
Sashes to be 7 feet 6 inches from floor; single sash hung same as fan-lights. 
Glass, 12 by 14, 6 lights. 

Inside doors to be double faced, four panelled, and moulded with neat flush 
mouldings. All to have fan-lights above, two lights high and hung on pivots 
in centre. All doors to be hung with strong, suitable sized butt — three butts to 
each door — to be fastened with suitable sized locks and bolts. All to be of the 
best quality, properly put on where required. Glass for partitions and head- 
lights to be the same as the windows, put in in the best manner, complete in 
every part. 

Stairs. — The stairs to be put up on each side of the said building and in 
rear, as shown. Platforms, 10 feet wide, to extend from recess to rear of build- 
ing ; (upper platform on outside stairs on each side of building to be covered 
with a porch, supported by three columns neatly finished, with roof tinned, as 
on main building.) All to be put up on strong timber carriages, 1^-inch strings, 
1^-inch steps, f-inch risers tongued into the steps ; all to be of the best quality 
of yellow pine. Stair risers not to be over 7 inches in height ; all to be put up 
in the best manner with platforms, &c, as shown on plans. The railings around 
the platforms and stairs are all to be put up in the strongest manner possible, 
with strong rails and 1^-inch square balusters and posts, as shown on plans ; 
also, put up a strong step-ladder from second story to roof, and a scuttle on roof 
placed where directed. 

Floors and Roofs. — The floors to be laid with the best mill-worked yellow 
pine flooring, lj inch thick, not over 5 inches wide, laid in courses, blind nailed, 
each plank to each beam, to be neatly jointed and the joints properly smoothed 
off when finished. All to be clear, well seasoned, and free from defects. The 
stoop platforms to be covered with same quality of flooring, Platforms to be 
furred up in height as directed. 

The roofs of main building and of privies to be sheathed with common mill- 
worked plank I J inch thick, bracketed to frame. Valleys for water-courses, and 
all to be well nailed down and properly prepared to receive the tin. All roofs 
to be covered with best quality I C tin plate, charcoal refined iron, well nailed 
down, well clenched and soldered, and warranted to be water-tight for one year. 
Put up on each corner in rear two 6-inch diameter leaders, running across the 
rear, conducting the water from the roof to the cistern. The tin to run up on 
the rear wall and return on top under the coping. Also to be returned in all 
chimney joints. Tin work to be properly painted two good coats, the resin to 



56 SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 

be neatly cleaned off before painting. Paint to be of best quality roof paint, 
mixed with pare linseed raw oil. 

Hall Wardrobes — Put up in all the hallways where directed, metal hat pins 
screwed on beaded slats enclosed with small slat closets as directed. The total 
number of hooks to be about .500. The closets also to be fitted up with shelves 
in a plain and substantial manner as directed. 

Privies. — Two double privies to be fitted up in yard, 8 by 14 feet, vaults 6 
feet deep, with seats, risers, lids, &c, in the most approved manner, with 3 by 
8 inch beams for floors, covered with narrow plank, 1^ inch thick, mill worked, 
and covered with 3 by 6 inch rafters, sheathed with roof plank and tinned, same 
as building. Also, in centre of each, carry up a large stench pipe running out 
above the roof; and on the side of each attach a private privy for the teachers. 
All to be fitted up with small sashes for light, with doors, &c, complete, in the 
most approved manner. The floors to have a strong hatch screwed down, so it 
can be taken up for the purpose of cleaning the sinks. .The outside walls of 
said privies to be built of brick, 8 inches thick. 

Two Wash-rooms to be partitioned off and fitted up in rear basement, one 
for the girls, and one for the boys ; also janitor's room and fuel room in front of 
basement, as directed, with studded partitions, and lined with tongued and 
grooved boards both sides, with batten doors where required, hung with strong 
hinges, and fastened with padlocks, hasps, and staples. 

Cornice— Put up neat, substantial wooden cornices in front and on side of 
building with sawed brackets, mouldings, &c, well, fastened on rough brack- 
ets ; all to be finished and completed in the best manner, as shown on plans. 

Painting. — All the wood-work, both inside and outside, which is usually 
painted, is to have three good coats of best quality of paint, of whatever color 
directed. All nail holes and slight defects in wood-work are to be neatly puttied 
up before painting. 

Ventilators, Smoke-flues, Registers, etc. — Put up on the roof two 
large galvanized iron ventilators, 20 inches diameter, to be of the most approved 
pattern, put up in the best manner and warranted water-tight. Smoke-flues are 
not to be less than 9 inches square in the clear; ventilating flues not less than 
12 inches square in the clear ; each flue to be carried up independently of any 
other flue, and to terminate in the ventilator or chimney top on the roof. 

Put into the flues, where directed, stove-pipe rings and covers. Also put in 
the ventilation flue of each room ventilating registers, one at the top and 
the other at the bottom of the room. Ventilation flues must descend to 
the basement, and left open on outside, with adjustable doors to regulate the 
admission of cold air; also in the flue between the two openings in a room is to 
be a close fitting door hung on pivots arranged to be controlled at will from the 
room, to shut off currents of air when desired. The registers in rooms to be 
made to open or close at pleasure. All these flues to be constructed with refer- 
ence to passing the foul air from the room out of the ventilators at the top of 
roof, and for admitting pure air in its place. 

Quality of Materials and Work. — All the materials used in the construc- 
tion of the building to be of the best quality of their several kinds. The wood 
to be well seasoned, and whenever exposed to view to be free from any objection- 
able defects. All of the above mentioned work to be done in a complete, thor- 
ough, workmanlike manner. 

The specification and plans are intended to cover all and every part of the 
details necessary to complete the building in all its parts, in a plain, substantial 
and thorough manner, and no omission in the plans or specifications will be 
deemed an excuse for not fulfilling the work. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 57 



FURSTCTURE. 



71. Furnish well. Let this be the motto whatever the character of the build- 
ing may be. If costly, it will command good furniture. If plain, nearly all 
the advantages of an expensive house may be attained, for the time, by furnish- 
ing well. There is vastly more comfort and contentment to teacher and pupils 
where the wants of the school have been handsomely provided for. The result 
on the one hand is cheerfulness, love of school, and progress ; on the other a 
distaste for study, truancy, and dissatisfaction. There is now and then a bril- 
liant mind that is fired with a thirst for knowledge — such will learn under the 
most adverse circumstances ; but this is not commonly the case. We have to 
win youth by making the path to knowledge a pleasant and, if possible, a flowery 
one. Children cannot sit still long at home. They need not be expected to 
preserve order at school when the arrangements are not such as to meet the 
plainest demands of the place and pursuit. Let those who oppose a liberal sup- 
ply of furniture for the school try being pupils for a few weeks. Would they 
not generally yield their objections? Children grow restless and troublesome 
from the very agony of sitting still. The school ought not to be a reminder of 
the pillory or the whipping post. 

72. The desks and seats may be so fashioned as to relieve this irksomeness. 
They will then add to the enjoyment of the children, the ease of the teacher's 
duties, and stimulate the pupil's progress. The height of the seat should be such 
as to allow the foot of the child to rest naturally on the floor. The front edge of 
the seat may be half an inch higher than the back, to prevent the tendency to 
slip forward. The height of the desk corresponds to the height of the child's 
body. This may be determined by raising the arm to an easy position for 
writing or using the slate pencil. The desk may slope toward the pupil about 
one inch and a half to a foot of the width of the desk. A space about three 
inches in width at the front edge ought to be level or sloping a little from the 
pupil to prevent pens and pencils rolling off. Sometimes a groove is ploughed 
out in which to lay them, leavjng three inches for an ink well in front of it. The 
back of the desk ought to have about the same inclination from a vertical Hue 
as a chair back, say two inches to a foot. Where the furniture is to be made 
by a carpenter at home, it is often desirable to make all the joints square. In 
that case the desk, seat, and back may be set at right angles. To get the slope 
for the back, and the inclination for the desk, cut the foot of the standard on a 
bevel of one inch and a half to the foot. 

The cut represents the ends of wooden desks as 
commonly made by carpenters. The material used 
is pine boards. They are much better than no 
desks; but there are grave objections to them. The 
ends or standards are two feet broad on the floor. 
The great width interferes with pupils getting in 
and out of their seats. Dirt accumulates about 

_,.„„-.',. ,. them and cannot be readily swept or scrubbed away, 

Fig:. 29. End view ot common . ■,-, ,, -S n i_-u 

wooden desks especially on the inner sides. Uneasy children un- 

consciously thump their shoes against them, causing 
confusion in the room. The backs are boarded down low, which with the ends 
prevent a free circulation of air. The nails work loose in the standards or draw 
out of the floor and leave the desks in a rickety condition, quite unfit for use. 



58 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 




Fig. 30. End view of improved wooden desks and seats. 

73. A A represent the ends of two desks; E and 0, the long standards; and 
H, a short standard at the front. F and H are at the centre of the desks ; J 
is a cross-bar halved into F and H, and bolted to them. It holds the two desks 
firmly together, so that any motion of pupils sitting on the seat S would not jar 
the desk at the back of them. An entire row of desks locked together in this 
way are much firmer than when they stand independently. 

Fig. 31 shows the form of the cross-bar J, and the points at which it is inter- 
locked with the standards F and H. It is attached to 
them with small bolts or large screws. S and T repre- 
sent the seats, which are 12 inches wide ; B and Gr form 
the back to the seat. They are halved into the standards 
and securely fastened by screws ; Gr is also nailed to the 
back edge of the seat S, which is supported in the centre by the cross-bar J. 
Each end of a seat is supported by a bracket as shown at K. This bracket is 
omitted under the seat at S in order to show the cross-bar. 

The standards and brackets are of hard wood. The former are about 3 by 3 
inches square. Their appearance may be improved by turning the parts not 
covered by the other portions of the desk which are attached to them. The 
brackets are an inch or more in thickness, halved into the standards. In putting 
together, the joints should all be glued and bolted or screwed firmly to each 
other. The feet of the standards are fastened to the floor by cast-iron braces or 
knees. Each desk is furnished with a shelf divided into two compartments, one 
for each pupil. An iron brace six or eight inches long runs down from the 
shelf to each side of the long centre standards F and M. 



Fig. 31. Cross-bar. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



5S 



Fig. 32. Tops of desks and seats, showing form, size, &c. 

In this cut D represents the tops of the desks, and S S the seats. J, the 
cross-bar, with its connections at the centre standards P and H. E and its cor- 
responding points give the position of the tops of the end standards. Over the 
short standards at H and I a hole is made for an ink-well, of which a cut and 
description are given below. 

The end standards present even less hindrance to persons getting in and out 
their seats than iron standards. The children canuot hit their feet against them, 
except by an effort and desire to create confusion. There is no lodgement for 
dirt that may not be readily reached by broom and scrubbing brush. The 
heights of the standards may be altered to conform to the sizes of the smaller 
pupils, as given in the Scale of Measurement of Desks. (|f 75.) The air is 
allowed free circulation. Au entire row is locked together in such a manner as 
to be self-supporting and to resist the jarring incident to the pupils moving on 
their seats, or pressing their backs against the desks behind them. 

Iron standards for desks and chairs are among the expensive luxuries and 
conveniences to be aspired after as the work of improvement goes on. They 
accompany finely polished tops, easy and comfortable cbairs. They are repre- 
sented in annexed cuts. 





Fig. 33. Single desk and chair. Fig. 34. Double desk and chairs. 

74. To lay OFF the floor of a room, for putting down the furniture, strike 
a chalk line along one side three and a half feet from the wall. This marks the 
width of an aisle, also the side of a row of desks. Measure off the length of a 
desk, and strike another line parallel with the first. Lay off the width of an 
inside aisle next, then of a row of desks, and so on until there remains only 
space enough for the other outside aisle three and a half feet wide. 



60 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



Now begin at the back end of the room. Draw a line across it three and a 
half feet from the wall. This gives the position for the standards of a range of 
seats. Put them in their places. Set up a desk so that the edge next the pupil 
will fall less than half an inch short of the vertical line touching the front edge 
of the seat. The space which a desk and seat occupy in a row is now ob- 
tained ; with it lay off other cross lines denoting the positions of the rest of the 
desks. 

The larger desks stand at the back end of the room. Two, three, or four 
different heights will be required. They need not vary in length. Six 
inches is allowed for the width of the seat standards and the slope of the backs 
when commencing to lay off at the back side of the room. Before beginning to 
put down the desks it will be found very convenient to make for use what the 
carpenters call a "bevel." This is formed by two strips of board three to five 
inches wide and two feet long, nailed together a 4 ", the same angle represented by 
one of the end standards with the floor, say an inch and a half to the foot. 

75. Scale of Measurement of Desks and Seats. 





DESK. 


SEAT. 


Length of 
desk and 

seat. 


Size. 


Width. 


Height of 

edge from 

floor. 


Width. 


Height of 

edge from 

floor. 


No. 1 


Inches. 
18 
16 
14 
12 


Inches. 

27i 
24£ 

20 


Inches. 
12 
11 

10£ 
10 


Inches. 
16 

13i . 
11 
10 


Inches. 

48 


No. 2 


46 


No. 3 


44 


No. 4 


42 







76. Ink-wells. — The waste of ink and the destruction of clothes by accidents 
in a school during any single year has been computed to be 
greater than the cost of furnishing every desk with a perma- 
nently attached ink-well. The ink-cup, represented in Fig. 35, 
is a common form used for this purpose. It is fitted to the desk 
by boring first to the depth of a quarter of an inch with an auger 
the size of the flange, then with one of lesser size deep enough to 
receive the entire cup. The position of the ink- well for a double Fi 35 i n k_ cu , 
desk is in the centre of the level space at the top, so that the 
two pupils occupying the desk may use it jointly. 





Cover for Ink-well. 



A is a metallic ring fastened to the desk ; B, flange raised to receive C (the 
cover) when turned and pressed under the flange, which holds it tightly; D, the 
cap with which to close the pen hole E, and prevent evaporation. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



61 



Some simple contrivance is needed to cover the ink-cup, for the double pur- 
pose of preventing the pupils from taking the cup out at any time, and to guard 
against evaporation. These objects are gained in the illustration. 

77. Teacher's Table. — Fig. 
37 represents an approved style 
of plain table for the teacher, 
adapted to the wants of a small 
school where there i3 a teacher's 
room or closet. 




Fig. 37. Teacher's table, No. 1. 





Fig. 38. Teacher's table, No. 2. 



Fig. 39. Teacher's table, No. 3. 



Where those conveniences are not provided, larger tables, like those shown in 
Figs. 38 and 39, are needed for the safe-keeping of books, papers, &c, of various 
kinds required for daily use in the school. 

78. The furniture of the teacher's room should 
comprise two or more chairs, a small writing table, 
a book case for library, and a closet. When en- 
larged to adapt it to a recitation room, seats and 
blackboards will be required. 

We would recommend, instead of the brackets 
shown in the figure to support the book- case, a 
suit of large drawers extending down to the floor 
for wall maps, charts, &c. 

79. Blackboards are indispensable. With 
them a well qualified teacher can instruct a large 
class with the same facility as one pupil. The 
illustrations given on them arrest the attention of 
children and help to enforce a truth or an explana- 
tion. Pupils are fond of working at them in classes. 
Especially are they important in the instruction of 
primary scholars. Fifty children may be taught 
the alphabet and easy reading, as well as the ele- 
ments of writing, drawing, and arithmetic, sooner and 
easier with blackboards than fifteen can without 
them. 

Their supply should be abundant. Beginning with a fine large one on the 
wall in rear of the teacher's platform, they should extend to the two sides of the 
room, covering the vacant spaces between the windows. The upper edge should 
not be over six and a half feet from the floor. The lower one should come to 




A Book- case. 



62 SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 

within two feet of the floor, making the width about four or four and a half feet. 
At the lower edge, a trough four inches wide is needed for the chalk, rubbers, 
and pointers. The other three edges may be bordered by a plain moulding. 

80. The material for blackboard is white pine, white wood, or other similar 
grained wood. Yellow pine and some of the hard woods have a coarser and 
unequal grain, that make them unfit for this purpose. The stuff should be an 
inch to an inch and a half thick, thoroughly seasoned, planed smoothly, sand- 
papered down, and set in a frame at the ends so that hey may be crowded to- 
gether in case of shrinking. 

81. Blackboard Paint. — In color, it should be dark, nearly black. It must 
be durable as the hardest varnish, yet not glossy. Its su- face should be slightly 
gritty, so as to catch every touch of the crayon, without I eing harsh or rough. 
The oil paints become smooth and glossy with wear ; to prevent this, add a 
small quantity of the finest flour of emery or pumice-stone before using. A 
few experiments may be necessary to determine the quantity. 

A most excellent article is sold by the school furnishing houses. A fair imi- 
tation may be produced by dissolving gum shellac in alcohol. This gives 
" body." Add flour of emery to produce an abrading surface, and lamp-black, 
moistened with alcohol, to give the color. The liquid should be thinner than 
paint and constantly stirred while being applied. A fine hair brush should be 
used to put it on with ; common paint brushes leave the surface rough. To 
smooth it down take a block of wood that has been coated with the same mate- 
rial, after both are dry and hard, and rub it over the face of the board. 

82. Plaster Black Wall.* — The following directions may be of some 
use in making plaster black wall : 

In the first place, the scratch coat, made with coarse sand, is spread upon the 
laths as usual, and the brown coat follows, being left a little rough under the 
" float." When the brown coat is perfectly dry, the black coat is laid on. 

This is prepared of mason's " putty" and ground plaster and beach sand, 
mixed in the usual proportions for hard finish. The coloring matter is lamp- 
black, wet with alcohol or whiskey, forming a mixture of the consistency of 
paste. This is mixed with the other ingredients just as they are about to be 
spread upon the wall. The quantity of coloring to be used must be sufficient 
to make a black surface ; the sufficiency being determined by experiment — no rule 
can be given. An intelligent mason can very soon try experiments so as to 
insure success. It is to be remembered that the black surface requires much 
more woiking with the smoothing trowel than ordinary white finish. It should 
be finished by being softly smoothed with a wet brush. When perfectly dry 
it is nearly as hard as slate, and almost as durable, if carefully used. Great 
care should be taken not to put in too much lamp-black. 

The following recipe is suggestive : 

For twenty square yards of wall, take three pecks of mason's putty, {white 
finish,) three pecks of clean, white sand, and three pecks of ground and cal- 
cined plaster ; add to this mixture three pounds of lamp-black dissolved in three 
gallons of alcohol, and lay it on evenly and smoothly. 

A mason who has had good success in this class of work uses one part hydraulic 
cement with two of lime in the second coat. The lamp-black is used in this and 
no skim coat is added. So much depends upon the nature and conditions of 
the materials employed that it must be left to the experimenter to make the 
exact combinations in each particular case. 

83. A paper surface that answers well on walls too rough for the chalk or 
crayon, may be made by taking the stout manilla paper that comes in rolls ; cut it 
the required length; lay it on a table and moisten it with a preparation of glue 

* Barnard's School Architecture. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 63 

or paste. The wall should be first smoothed down with a piece of pumice 
stone or a brick, and covered with a coating of glue. Apply the paper. 
When dry use the best paint that you can get for it. Renew the paint as often 
as it seems necessary, for the paper itself would soon wear through if left ex- 
posed to the abrasion of the chalk. 

84. Slate makes the best blackboard. It is indeed the only thing really fit- 
All the others are temporary substitutes, cheaper in the beginning, but infi- 
nitely poorer and finally more costly. They may be ordered through the school 
furnishing establishments, or obtained at the Eagle quarries, Vermont, of any 
required size. They are three-fourths of an inch thick ; never get out of repair ; 
will last for generations. It will always pay to get them where there are sev- 
eral rooms to be furnished. 

85. Rubber. — "The best thing for removing the chalk from the board is a 
brush, made of the size of a shoe-brush, with the wooden handle on the back, 
the face being covered with a sheep-skin with the wool on. This removes the 
chalk at a single sweep, without wearing the surface, and without soiling the 
hand of the operator. This is a great improvement over a dust-cloth or a sponge." 

86. Keep dry. — " In all cases let the board be kept dry ; never allow a pupil 
to wet the wiper when removing the chalk." 

To restore the surface. — " By long use, especially if the surface is ever 
cleaned with a wet wiper, this kind of blackboard becomes too smooth and glossy 
upon the surface ; the chalk passes over it without taking effect, and the light 
is reflected by it. A very simple wash, applied with a soft brush, will immedi- 
ately restore it ; this wash is made by dissolving one part of glue, to two parts 
of alum in water, so as to make a very thin solution. It is well to have the 
wash slightly colored with lamp-black. Care must be taken that this wash do 
not have too much ' body.' " [Barnard's School Architecture.] 

87. We are not yet done furnishing the school-room. There remains to 
be supplied a variety of lesser articles. To name them will generally suggest 
their use and importance. As accompaniments of the fireplace or stove, a poker, 
shovel, and tongs, a sheet-iron ash pail, and a dish for evaporating water, are 
needed. A broom, dust-brush, and dust-pan, mop and mop-pail, scrubbing-brush, 
wash-basin, and towels, two water-buckets and dippers, door mats and scrapers — 
all familiar and suggestive names, bringing to mind white floors, clean furniture 
and sweet faces. A clock, thermometer, and signal-bell for the teacher will help 
to insure promptness, regularity, comfort, and good order. 

88. A large bell should ring out the hour for school from the belfry, loud 
enough to be heard all over the village or district. If grown-up persons must 
be reminded of the return of the hour of prayer when the welcome duties of 
the sanctuary are to bring consolation and repose from care, how much more do 
children in the midst of their glee and innocent amusement need to be admon- 
ished that school time is at hand. 

By all that we love in youth or hope from them in riper years, let the school- 
building be good, the furniture better, and the teacher the best that our means 
can obtain. 

©UTI5UIIiI>IN©g. 

89. A Wood-house is always needed. A shed for the wood can easily be built 
when a better building canuot be prepared. Then the wood can be procured 
months in advance of cold weather, cut up, piled and be in readiness for use. 
The habit of using green wood is a wasteful one. It takes more wood ; the steam 
generated cracks the stove and rusts the pipes. The temperature cannot be 
properly regulated with it. The gases which it emits are often offensive and in- 
jurious to health. And then, it is an unreasonable tax on the teacher to add the 
task of seasoning the fuel to conducting the school. 



64 SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 

90. An Ash-house is needed also. It is a slovenly practice to throw the 
ashes down by the door to be tracked back into the house again. 

91. Privies. — It is said that the objection which many parents, and especially 
mothers, have to sending their daughters to the public school arises from the dis- 
graceful condition of the back-yards, and the utter neglect of enforcing the 
decencies of life. In the first place, there should be two separate privies, not 
within a hundred feet of the well or the house, nor near each other. A tight, 
high board fence or evergreen hedge should divide the back-yards. Lattice 
screens overgrown with vines or evergreen hedges should add to their retirement. 
They should be large and supplied with vaults not less than six feet deep, through 
which, if possible, a stream of water should pass. In that for the boys there 
should be an arrangement to prevent their standing on the seats. Let urinals 
be provided on one side of a partition and seats on the other. Subdivide them 
by short partitions so as to allow about two feet to each division. The whole 
should be painted and heavily sanded to prevent marking. The doors should 
be kept locked and no one permitted to enter except during the hours when pupils 
are allowed in the yards. The teacher, out of respect to common decency, will 
see that nothing in connection with the establishment becomes a disgrace to the 
school nor a nuisance to the neighborhood; but the school officers will not neg- 
lect their share of the duty, by having the vaults cleaned and supplied with 
lime, wood-ashes, and other strong disinfectants during the hot season. This 
must be rigidly attended to by the janitor, in large buildings. For specifications 
for the construction of privies see ^j 70. Wood may, of course, be substituted 
for the walls above ground in the place of brick. 

IMPROVING THE ^KOUIDS. 

92. If there were any point at which a digression from the rigid line of prac- 
tical thought were admissible, it is here. The school has a character to establish. 
It is to be honored and cherished, or neglected and despised. To be honored it 
must be fruitful in good works. Yet of itself it can do nothing. It has neither 
personality nor power, except as its friends impart vitality to it. It is to be the 
reflection of their wisdom and care, or the memorial of their ignorance and im- 
potence. The erection of a fine building is one good step ; furnishing it well, 
another ; employing a good teacher is not the least item. But beyond these the 
improvement of the yard and grounds is worthy of much attention. Children 
catch the sentiment of a place as by inspiration. The beautiful lawn, the shady 
grove, the inviting play -ground, have a charm for them. Even the flower border 
impresses rough and reckless fellows with respect. It helps to refine their 
thoughts and purify their hearts. 

What shall the improvements be, and how shall they be made ? The circum- 
stances of each case must be regarded. We only suggest in a general way. 

93. Fences. — One of the first things to be done in this line is to enclose the 
grounds with a substantial defence against the incursions of stock allowed to 
roam at large. A good panel board fence need only be named. Every one 
knows how to build it. If sawed lumber be scarce a fence of posts and rails is 
not to be despised. Where rock is easily obtained and the ground is firm, a stone 
wall answers every purpose. If the material be nicely selected and well laid, 
there is no particular objection to this sort of enclosure, except that the top stones 
will be liable to get knocked down by the boys in their plays. Vines may be 
planted to run over the wall. The woodbine, the ivy, grape, clematis, or any of 
the numerous delicate flowering vines with which a neighborhood abounds, would 
add much to the grace of an otherwise uncomely fence. 

94. Gates or wickets of the most substantial kind should be placed at the en- 
trances. There may properly be one in front and one for each of the yards, 
besides a large gate for teams when hauling wood, &c. Some neat, strong speci- 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 65 

mens of rustic gates are illustrated in several cuts in a subsequent portion of the 
work. 

95. In the construction of walks, such materials may be used as are commonly 
employed in the neighborhood. When gravel is abundant there is nothing better. 
It should be liberally spread around the front of the building several inches deep. 
If the ground be moist let blind drains be laid under or near them and in the 
direction of the gates, out-buildings, well or spring, and the play-grounds. They 
may often be gracefully curved and in that way improve the appearance of the 
yard ; yet if the curvatures are too great the children will leave them and run 
across the grass. 

Plank makes a good substitute for gravel, but are rather expensive. Perma- 
nent walks are also made by mixing plastering-sand with boiled coal tar in such 
proportions as to form a stiff mortar, and then spreading on a coating two inches 
thick. For drive-ways or road-crossings it must be much thicker. 

96. Shade and Ornamental Trees — Under this head much might be said : 
the kinds to be selected, the time of year to transplant them, where to set them, 
and how to tend them afterwards — all this must be left to the. local officers or 
friends interested. The entire plat should be surrounded by a row of shade 
trees planted twenty to thirty or more feet apart, according to the habit of the 
tree. Selections may be made from among the broad spreading oaks, the grace- 
ful elms, the pretty-leaved maples, gums, ashes, locusts, and their kindred, or 
the unique juniper, arbor vita3, the spruces, firs, pines, cypress, and other cone- 
bearing trees. Within the yard the magnolia, the palmetto and its kindred, 
the oleander, the flowering myrtle, the orange, date, olive, and many other ele- 
gant and attractive trees. Shrubs and flowering plants should be carefully 
planted. 

All that need be done in this direction may be accomplished without paying 
out much money. There are many wild flowers which equal or excel the culti- 
vated varieties, which the children might bring, with all their roots undisturbed 
in the earth, from their native habitats. The older boys can dig up the trees 
under the instructions of an experienced tree-planter, who will teach them how 
precious are the rootlets to the life of the tree, and how carefully they must be 
preserved from dryness or bruising. Let some one start the project, volunteer 
his own services, bring in others, and the work is done. But that some one 
must take the lead. Talk is idle. Work wins. Those who do the work will 
have the credit and the satisfaction. 

97. Drainage should be complete from every part of the grounds. Where 
the soil is not sandy or gravelly, and especially where the sub-soil is compact, 
some artificial drains will be needed to carry the water off as fast as it falls on 
the surface. Surface or open drains are useful, but not sufficient in many cases. 

A secret or blind drain should be sunk every twenty to fifty feet, according 
to the soil, running in the direction of the declivity of the ground. Its width on 
the bottom will vary with the kind of drain laid. If tile, made of burnt clay, 
it maybe narrow, only wide enough for the ditcher's foot. If stones are used, it 
must be wider, say twelve to sixteen inches, according to the size of the stones. 

To make an arched drain lay a course of stones four-inch square along each 
side, cover these with a flat stone wide enough to lap on to each side at least 
two inches. Pill in with smaller stones, say six inches. Then scatter in a 
course of straw, broom grass, or other litter, three inches. Haul in the dirt, 
pounding it down firmly as you go. 

Cobble stones, three-inch diameter, or less, may be used when square and flat 
stones cannot be obtained. They are thrown into the ditch to the depth of six 
or twelve inches, then covered with straw, or sods turned grass side down, and 
filled over with dirt. 

Where stones do not abound logs may be used. Take three sticks of straight, 
enduring timber six to eight inches in diameter. Lay two for the sides, and a 
5 s c 



66 SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 

third, which should he larger and might he split in two, over these, then fill in as 
hefore. 

When a portion of the soil is spongy, or sandy and springy, common drains 
are liable to fill up. In such cases brush may be used. Gather a quantity of 
small straight limbs from some trees noted for enduriDg well when exposed to 
dampness. Commence with these at the higher end of the drain. Lay the fine 
brush towards the higher end, the larger ends of the brush going down into the 
bottom of the ditch. Place one course on after another in a shingling fashion. 
Cover as before directed. 

Another style, known as the box drain, is available for general drainage, but 
especially adapted to carrying water from leaders, wash-rooms, &c. 

The bottom plank of a box drain is two inches thick by six or eight inches 
wide ; the side pieces two or three inches square ; the top same dimensions as 
bottom. When used specially for drainage, holes may be bored through the top 
and sides. Notches cut in the side pieces before putting together answer the 
same purpose. They are more quickly made. The object of these perforations 
is to let in the water. A box of rough materials could scarcely be so tight as 
to keep it out. If in the ground it will find the passage. 

Drains should be laid under or near walks, and generally at all places where 
the water stands after a shower. 

HOMES FOR THE PEOPLE. 

98. Good schools and good homes must unite in the elevation of any people. 
The one opens the mind to a knowledge of the world we live in; the other 
softens the heart, refines by its gentle influences, the rude passions and trains 
them into control. When the child passes from the tender care of a dutiful, 
Christian teacher to a hovel of filth, where the decencies of life are disregarded, 
the contact is contaminating. The aspirations implanted in the youthful mind 
after a higher life are weakened or wholly eradicated. Not alone is " the de- 
struction of the poor their poverty," but ignorance paralyzes their efforts and 
neglect chills many a noble young heart. The love of home is God-given. It 
rises instinctively in youth. Never was there a boy born in hunter's cabin or 
royal palace but pictured to himself the happy home he would have some day 
of his own. And yet how many generous spirited boys for the want of such a 
home have grown up to a hard, coarse manhood, or dwindled into maturity 
full of sharp, scheming, tight-fisted selfishness, sinking at last into an unloved 
and pitiable old age. 

It is a misfortune for persons of small means, without stated and regular in- 
comes, to be obliged to bring up their families in great cities. Business can pay 
higher rents than homes, so it drives homes out to the suburbs. But the poor, 
for the sake of being near their daily labor, often crowd into vast tenement 
houses which are wholly unfit for habitation, or take refuge down filthy alleys 
in damp, dismal cellars. There the pure air and sunshine can seldom come. 
Vice, ignorance, and immorality conspire together to destroy the health and ruin 
the soul. But little better is it for those who colonize upon the outskirts on low, 
damp, marshy lands liable to overflow by fresh water. The air of such locali- 
ties, poisoned by the miasma which they generate, invites the annual recurrence 
of fevers and the attacks of wide-spread and fatal epidemics. 

99. As a rule, the man is a better, more stable citizen who owns a home of his 
own. That house, though it be only an humble cabin, is his castle. There the 
laws protect him in his rights, and he bids defiance to any intruder. The 
American policy, recognizing the mutual relations and dependency of an inde- 
pendent yoemanry to a free government, invites the homeless of all nations to 
come and take the gift of a farm, to own it, live on it, cultivate it, and become a 
responsible member of a liberal and powerful nation. To promote intelligence 
it dispenses millions of acres under a pledge that they shall be sacredly devoted 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



67 



to educational uses. There is not only land enough for every man to have a farm, 
but material enough for every family to have a comfortable home. 

100. In seeking a location the first consideration is to learn whether it is 
healthful. No one giving the subject thought will locate where his family 
will be exposed to the " effluvia of vaults, drains, sewers, and extensive pig- 
geries, slaughter-houses, manufactories of manures from bones and other putres- 
cent emanations. These are prolific sources of disease, almost always with 
a typhoid tendency." The house should stand where there will be a free play 
of breezes, yet sheltered from the rudest winds. Trees should be near, yet not 
so near as to shade the house completely, or shut out the gentle breezes in hot 
weather. Both these and the sunlight are essential to health. The employer 
who would make his own interests to be respected by those he employs, will 
extend all the aid he cau in helping them to secure pleasant, comfortable homes 
of their own. 



ft;;£i- 



igmSBKm 



J, ,. - ^Rm 



'mmm 



r : ^ : ' -'-Mm 

y - ? ^' : - &s%&&m8&mwg£Bm\~. 

^fe III 



^--M^: : -m:i'-;/y--;, 






Fig. 41. Design for Log House. 
101. Our ideas of log houses are almost always associated with pioneer life 
in a wooded country. But this does not necessarily connect them with poverty, 
much less with ignorance and vice. Pioneers are often the most far-seeing, 
stout-hearted, and industrious of men, given to frankness and an open-handed 
hospitality that regales their guests more than a feast. In presenting, therefore, 
a unique design of this kind we prefer to conceive that it is to be copied by in- 
telligent, thrifty people, who will soon reduce the forest to a fruitful field, and 
build school-houses and churches where lately the wildness of nature ruled 
supreme. 

The architect (Vaux) justly remarks : This design does not illustrate a log 
cabin, or single room, in which a family of men, women, and children eat, drink, 
sleep, wash, dress, and undress all together. It is the plan of a house for a 
well-to-do settler and his family. 

The principal apartment, sixteen by twenty feet, is proposed to communicate 
at once with the open air through a door under the veran- 
da- porch in the summer, and to be approached through a 
small wash-room at the side in the winter. The veranda 
may then be used for storing a small supply of dry wood 
under cover. In ihe wash-room is a flight of ladder steps 
leading to the loft. The family room has two windows iu 
it, and is connected with two small bedrooms and a store- 
room, each supplied with one small window. The house 
42. Plan of Log is intended to be constructed in the ordinary manner with 
House, rough logs ; but as much neatness as is compatible with 




Fig. 



68 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



proper economy is supposed to be exercised in the selection of the material and 
in the execution of the work. In clearing up the forest a little judicious fore- 
thought will certainly preserve a few fine specimens of the primative growth 
around the family home for shade and enjoyment. 









§fc#^' 







Fig. 43. Design for a Saddle-back Log House. 
102. Even after saw-mills have become common, where the lumber must 
be hauled several miles over bad roads, it is better economy to use these 
piimitive materials than resort to boards, for little or no reason, except that 
other people live in houses constructed of sawed lumber. Oar architect, Littell, 
has given us an enlarged design for a log house, with rooms for the accommoda- 
tion of a good-sized family. Its construction is that of a block-house — that is, 
the timbers are hewn or squared, and laid up snugly and strongly one above the 
other with great care and neatness. The size and arrangement of the windows 
and doors, the construction of the roof and of all other parts, will suggest them- 
selves to the workman who is familiar with building this class of houses. Useful 
hints may be gleaned from the general directions contained in ff 48, on- the con- 
struction of a log school-house. 




Fig. 44. Plan of Saddle-back House. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES, C)d 

From the porch A, which is large and spacious, communication is had with 
all the rooms. On the right is the principal living room B, 26 by 18 feet, 
with a fireplace.- It communicates with a large pantry 0, 9 by 18 feet, and 
with a commodious sitting-room D, 15 by 16 feet. On the left we have two 
large bed-rooms, E, IS by 21, and F, 15 by IS feet. The arrangement is 
quite simple and subject to modifications to suit the taste or wants of occupants. 
For instance, the pantry might be divided, forming also a clothes press to be 
furnished with shelves. The two bed-rooms on the left would not suffer by sub- 
division into three if the wants of the family required. But we must not carry 
the subdivision too far, lest we shut off the light or air from some of the apart- 
ments, and thus entail more evils than we gain advantages. 

In houses like these some of our most active and energetic' men have been 
reared. Their careful and intelligent parents sent them into the world -with 
sound constitutions, good morals, and a fair share of good sense. Their edu- 
cation was begun at the fireside, or, more literally, by the light of a " fat pine 
knot" in the chimney corner, by which they have been enabled to grasp the 
ideas of the age and to make themselves useful, working members of a great 
and prosperous people. Men who now hold the highest positions in the gift of 
the nation first learned to contend with and conquer difficulties while living 
in log houses, even less respectable in appearance and far less comfortable than 
these illustrations show. We would not addle any young man's brain with 
the thought that he too may yet be congressman, or senator, or chief justice, 
or President, though he might have been born in a log cabin; but we would that 
every one might strongly feel there is an honorable and useful place for him in 
life, that the want for good, honest, upright men was never greater, and that any 
one who will prepare himself well to fill the place of a man, and go to work with 
a manly judgment and persistence to till it, may rise to that sphere in which his 
talents and taste will find full and satisfying exercise. 

The style of building shown in the perspective elevation is well adapted to 
school-houses requiring two rooms. 

103. The engraving 
^^^3fig^ ^ presents a perspective 

_=__ ~ - ;- — -^ Blip view of a cottage con- 

Si - r ~ structed after the style 

W mBM ■■ " L-?3, of a box frame, described 
3i|f- % ''" ' - ^ u Tf 49. The. roof pro- 

" - % : iSP jects about 2 feet. The 

- '^~ rr V '■> windows are hooded in 

*' :f; r 1 the plainest manner. 

: The stoop, 6 by 4 feet, 
^i^M'Z--- - v. HI protect the front 
IpS^ r-i^^ door from the storms. It 

. ;| . §m§^F s ' i* broad enough for a seat 
• ""-t^^^^^S^^ on ei ther side, and is an 

inviting place for father 

Fig! 45. Design for a Laborer's Cottage.* <f d family, after the 

day s duties are done. 
The side elevation gives a view of the lean-to in the rear, showing a contin- 
uous roof, one-quarter pitch — that is, one foot perpendicular rise to each four feet 

* This and the three following designs, also the designs for rustic gates, are from the 
American Agriculturist. 



M*OP5\ - Go. 



70 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 




Fig. 46. End elevation. 

The ceiling of first story is ten feet high. To make the second 

Of 




across the building. In localities where there is a 

tendency to dampness, the elevation should be increased 

to one foot for every three. If the roof be too flat it 

harbors moss and sooner decays. The space in the 

garret is so small as to be scarcely worthy of notice 

The window serves to ventilate it. No one should 

sleep in the confined air of such a clise place as it 

would be with the windows shut in hot weather. Nor 

would it be much better in the cooler nights unless they 

were opened. 

story habitable the walls should be carried up four feet above the floor. 

course a full height is preferable. 

The arrangement of the rooms in the ground plan is not complete. The living 
room, L R, is 14 by 14 feet ; bed-room, B R, 8 by 8 feet. Back of this the room 

is 8 feet long, with a passage by the side of a 
stairway of 3| feet. This may be used for a 
closet. The lean-to, marked W H in the plan, 
is 26 by 8 feet. It may be divided into a wash- 
room on the right, which would also serve for a 
cook-room, and on the left for a large bed -room. 
We have then, practically, a kitchen and bed- 
room in the lean-to; in the main part a comforta- 
ble living room, a bed-room and closet, or clothes 
press, with shelves and hooks, adapted to a vari- 
ety of wants. The house, though small, would 
not cost as much as an active man should earn in 
one year, yet it has rooms enough for a small 
family to "begin the world " in, and, if their dis- 
positions be right, they will find much enjoyment within its walls. 

It must be confessed that our new house is not quite so inviting in its external 
appearance as it will be after a few years have passed. The ground for the 
garden on the left is but just broken, and lies in ridges as the plough laid the 
furrows. That will be the vegetable garden, to be kept clean of weeds. The 
wife will plant seeds of climbing vines by the windows ; the boys will set the 
woodbine or clematis by the stoop, and the father will not forget a trellis for 
grapes, a border for flowers, nor omit planting such trees as will bear fruit needed 
by the family. Others more purely ornamental may be allowed their share of 
space in the front yard. The road side may be improved by setting those of a 
wide-spreading habit of growth, or such as will stand for ages towering towards 
the sky. 

There are thousands of families living on the broad prairies of the West, 
whose pioneer cabins were smaller and poorer than this. When they erected 
them not a sod had ever been broken in the broad green fields around them 
They were honest, industrious, and frugal people. They were hopeful, too, and 
courageous. Generally those who took good care of themselves were healthy. 
They worked hard ; others came and settled near them. They established 
schools and built churches. Railroads came to them. The outer world wanted 
all they could produce, and paid them for their labors. Now many of these 
families are enjoying comfort and even wealth. All this may be repeated else- 
where. Those who would reap the blessings must make the start with a right 
strong determination to work and succeed. 

This cottage is constructed on the box-frame plan. Directions for building are 
contained in fj 49. 



Fig:. 47. Ground Plan. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



?1 



Bill of materials and work. 

Feet. 

Sills, 6 by 8 inches, 120 feet long 480 

Plates, 3 by 6 inches, 120 feet long 180 

Partitions, 3 by 4 inches, 140 feet long 140 

Floor timbers, 22 pieces, 3 by 8 inches, 14 feet long 616 

Rafters, 3 by 4 inches 360 

Roof boards 6^0 

Siding, surface measure 1, 750 

Flooring, surface measure, 600, (^ added,) 150 750 

Boards for finishing 1, 000 



Total 5, 926 



Shingles 6, 000 

Windows 7 

Doors 6 

Nails, kegs 6 

Brick, (8 by 4 by 2 inches) 350 

Carpenters' work, days 60 

Masons' work, days 5 

104. In this design the 
architect has favored us with 
a neat and substantial cottage. 
Its external appearance be- 
speaks good words for the 
dwellers within. The gable 
over the centre window not 
only gives room for a window 
in the attic through which 
light and air find admission, 
but it improves the appear- 
ance of the building by break- 
ing up the sameness of the 
long, plain roof. Here we 
Fig. 48. Design for a Neat Cottage. have the chimney near the 

centre, but the builder is at 

liberty to exercise his preference in this as in all other matters. 
The living room or sitting room L, 13 

by 17 feet, serves as a kitchen. A bed 

room B, 10 by 12, with two windows, 

opens from it. Out of this a clothes-press 

C. The pantry P, 5 by 7 feet, is conve- 
nient to the fireplace stove. C O is a fine 

large closet with shelves and drawers. 

Opposite is a back entry with a sink S. 

A small window directly over the sink 

lights it. A cellar is provided for in the 

plan. The stairs to it go down from the 

back entry underneath the chamber stairs. 

The latter ascend from the hall in front 

and may be shut off from observation by a 

fitted stair rail. 





Fig. 49. Ground Plan, 
close partition and a door, or nicely 



72 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 




Fig. 50. Attic Plan. 



At the head of the stairs we have a long 
narrow room, rather low, opening into two 
bed-rooms B B, 10 by 11 and 10 by 14 
feet respectively. Each of these have a 
convenient clothes-press C. Over the 
front hall is a small room 0, almost large 
enough to place a bed in. It will serve as 
a store-room for articles that may not be 
needed for a time, but which are to be 
carefully laid away until needed. 

In a small dwelling like this it may ap- 
pear, at first glance, a waste of room and an unnecessary expense to have a 
front and back entry. This is not the case. The reverse is true. The front 
entry is for neatness; the other for constant use. There is no reason why the 
dirt which is liable to be tracked in should deface the hall through 
which guests would pass. The wife who attends to her own 
household work may, and should have quite as much pride as 
though several servants were at her bidding, and the husband 
who appreciates the weight of care and toil which falls to the lot 
of his wife, will take delight in arranging his house with especial 
regard to her convenience and comfort. 

The cut shows a very plain style of hood for window. It 
may be made of 2 inch plank. A piazza along the whole front 
would be a great improvement, and would do away with the need Fj - g . 5 i. a Hooded 

Of the hoods. Window. 

The bill of materials for this cottage is nearly the same as that for the next 
succeeding design. 



1 




j^--*:^-. 



105. This design is for a 
small family in moderate cir- 
cumstances, who have means 
to live in a comfortable man- 
ner, and who may expend 
something more on their house 
at the outset. 

The main part is 25 by 18 
feet, with an addition at the 
end of 16 by 5 feet, making 
the ground plan about 30 by 
18 feet. 

The principal rooms on the 
first floor are the living room 
P, 13 by 15 feet, and the 
kitchen K, 10 by 13 feet. 
They connect with each other 
and with the front entry, which 
is 4 by 11 feet. The kitchen 

also opens into the side entry E, 5 by 5 feet. Off it is a sink-room, 5 by 5 feet. 

This opens into a pantry P, 5 by 4 feet, fitted up with shelves on three sides. 




Fig. 52. Design for a Snug Cottage. 



SCHOOL -HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



73 



30 -fb 




Ficr. 53. Ground Plan. 



There is a cellar under the house. It is 
entered by a stairway out of the front hall, 
convenient to the kitchen. The cellar 
stairs are underneath those by which we 
ascend to the second floor. There will 
need be a turn in each flight of stairs. 
Those for the cellar should have a broad 
landing making theni easier of descent. A 
closet for dishes, C 0, stands by the side 
of the chimney. It opens into the dining 
room with a door, and connects with the 
kitchen by a slide. The living room is 
made much more cheerful by its bay window. 
It is formed of three sash set in framework 
and covered with a roof. 

The small room in the corner, L, 7 by 4 feet, is for a library. It should be 
furnished with shelves for books, a cabinet for minerals, shells, and other curi- 
osities. There may be room in it for a small writing table or secretary, with 
drawers for writing materials. The window in the library should be narrow, 
say two feet wide ; also the one in the hall. They may make up in height what 
they lack in width. In some situations the library and stairs may be changed 
to the opposite side of the house and the porch extended along the front of the 
house, as represented in Fig. 59. 

We may seem to have presumed too far in setting apart a room for a library. 
By a family of some taste and culture it will be highly prized. This is the 
ultimate end to which we look forward with much hope for all. If our occu- 
pants have not climbed up so far it is hoped they will yet seek those intellectual 
pursuits which tend to pass them gently down the declivity of life. 

The upper story has two bed-rooms, each 
the size of the room underneath it. Each 
is lighted by a window in the end. Both 
open from the hall, which has a window in 
it. The room on the left has a small closet. 
;>' That on the right enjoys a large clothes- 
press, directly over the library. 

106. The conveniences of this cottage 
are not a few, yet substantial advantage 
may be gained by raising the walls higher 
than are represented in the elevation. It 
must be apparent that the upper ceilings 
would be low, and that there will be a want 
of light and air in the sleeping rooms. liaise the second story to the height of 
8 or 10 feet and gain a window in the back side of each of the bed-rooms. 
How much more airy they would be ! Or raise this story but 4 or 5 feet ; pre- 
serve the neat style of attic windows in the front. Make two more in front and 
two more in rear. 

If all the room should not be wanted at first, or if, for othei reasons, the extra 
expense cannot be assumed, let the design be started with reference to this in- 
tention. The finishing may be left until the old bills for the house are all paid 
and something is in purse for the rest of the work. The house, finished as sug- 
gested, would be worth 33 per cent, more to sell, and 50 per cent, more to live in. 




Fig. 54. Second story. 



74 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 




This design is intended for a situation on the north side of a 
road running east and west ; the house to stand end to the road, 
bringing the kitchen on the east and the living room to the south 
and east. A western view will be had from the bay window. 
If placed on the east side of a road running north and south, the 
entrance should be toward the road. The kitchen and living 
room would still retain their southern and eastern aspect. In 
that case the back entry and pantry should be changed as in the 
annexed cut. 

Fig. 55. Rearrange- 
ment of rooms. 

Bill of materials and work. 

Feet. 

Frame, 2 by 6 inches, 92 feet long 92 

Sills, 6 by 8 inches, 120 feet long 480 

Partitions, 2 by 6 inches, 1,200 feet long 1, 200 

Plates, 2 by 6 inches, 106 feet long 106 

Girts, 1| by 5 inches, 106 feet long 55 

Floor timbers, (32 pieces,) 3 by 9 inches, 18 feet long 1, 296 

Rafters, (15 pieces,) 3 by 6 inches, 13 feet long 292 

Bearing beam, (1 piece, ) 4 by 8 inches, 30 feet long 80 

Roof boards 900 

Flooring, surface measure 1, 000 

Siding, surface measure 1, 400 

Boards, for finishing 1, 000 



Total . 



7,900 



Shingles 7, 500 

Windows 9 

Windows, bay 3 

Doors 15 

Nails, kegs '. 9 

Plastering, yards 400 

Brick, (8 by 4 by 2 inches) 1, 000 

Carpenters' work, days 160 

Masons' work, days 50 

107. We have here 
one of the snuggest, neat- 
est, and most convenient 
of cottages. It does not 
stand upon the desolate 
road-side, a monument of 
ignorance and unthriffc. 
A nicely graded lawn 
surrounds it. Trees are 
near to give their grate- 
ful shade and break the 
force of heavy winds. 
The rooms connect with 
each other in such a man- 
ner as to permit a draught 
of air to pass through 
from almost any direc- 
tion when it is needed. 
It has closets and con- 




Fig. 56. Design for a Comfortable Cottage. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



75 



veniences for the housewife in plenty, 
thence the kitchen or living room K, 
12 by 14 feet. A window looks out on 
the porch. This, by the way, might 
be removed a few feet to the right and 
a door substituted in its stead. The 
living room is connected with the parlor 
P, a snug little apartment, 12 by 12 
feet; also with the commodious bed- 
room B, the same size as the parlor. 
A chimney stands between the two. 
The bed-room has a clothes press c. 
On the other side of the chimney a door 
might be placed to connect the two 
rooms. But many people prefer to build 
their chimneys out of doors. On re- 



From the porch G we enter the hall H ; 




Fig. 57. Ground Plan. 



X 



B 

12*15 



V 



s. 



moving it to the end of the house we should be very likely to sacrifice the clothes 
presses. On this account, if no other, the chimney should stand where represented 
in the engraving. Outside chimneys cost more than those which are built under 
cover, because they take more brick and of a better quality. 

The kitchen has an entry E, which may be used for doing the rougher work 

in. A sink connects with the entry. 
Here the men may wash and prepare for 
their meals. On the opposite side of 
the chimney is another closet F, service- 
able for many uses. 

The arrangement of the rooms on 
the second floor is nearly the same as 
below. Each has its clothes press, 
and by a proper forethought each may 
have a fireplace for warming or venti- 
lating. A small window at A, over 
the porch, will light the upper hall. 
It may be hung with hinges to open 
and let in the air. 



B 



Fig. 58. Second story. 



Bill of materials and work. 

Feet. 

Frame, 2 by 6 inches, 1,170 feet long 1, 170 

Sills, 6 by S inches, 1,140 feet long 4, 540 

Partitions, 3 by 4 inches, 1,200 feet long 1, 200 

Plates, 3 by 6 inches, 120 feet long ISO 

Girders, 1| by 5 inches, 120 feet long 62 

Floor timbers, (24 pieces,) 3 by 9 inches, 13 feet long 700 

Floor timbers, (40 pieces,) 3 by 9 inches, 20 feet long 1, 800 

Roof boards 900 

Flooring, (surface measure,) 1,200, (i added,) 300 1, 500 

Siding, (surface measure,) 1,600, (J added, ) 400 2, 000 

Boards, for finishing 1, 500 



Total 15, 552 



Shingles 8, 000 

Windows 11 



76 



SCHOOL-HCfUcES AND COTTAGES. 



Doors 

Nails, kegs 

Plastering, yards 

Brick, (8 by 4 by 2 inches) 
Carpenters' work, days .... 
Masons' work, clays 



4 

10 

510 

1 , 500 

160 

60 



108. The accompanying design is no fancy sketch. It is the home of a mechanic 
who by diligent attention to business and honest industry has achieved a compe- 




Fig. 59. A thriving- mechanic's Home.* (Size, 30 by 20 feet; two stories with attic.) 

tence. The house is approached by a veranda-porch. The principal floor is occupied 
by an airy parlor fitted up with recessed book-cases in the walls at the sides of 
the fireplace. In rear is a small living or dining room. Adjacent is the kitchen 
communicating with the back porch, in which is a sink. The chimney stack is 
placed in the centre of the building, the better to accommodate all the rooms 
with fireplaces and insure ventilation. In the summer the kitchen work may 
be performed in a back kitchen detached from the dwelling. 





Fig. 60. Plan of principal floor. Fig. 61. Plan of chambers. 

The arrangement of the chambers is plainly shown in the cut. Three bed- 
rooms, a large linen closet, and two smaller clothes presses complete the accom- 
modations for a family of moderate size to live in a very comfortable, genteel 

* Figs. 59 to 71, inclusive, are from Vaux's Villas and Cottages. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES 77 

way. A gable is introduced at the side to give headway for stairs to the attic 
should the wants of the family demand an occasional extra room or two. 

109. In fitting up the parlor of such a cottage as this, remarks Mr. Vaux, the 
architect, good taste would indicate that the carpet should be of small pattern 
and quiet in color, so as to. give an air of repose to the whole room. The wood- 
work might be either stained and varnished, or painted in light, cheerful tints. 
The walls should be covered with a pretty, fanciful paper, harmonizing with 
the wood-work, and not in large pattern, lest it appear to decrease the size of 
the apartment. The mantel-piece may be of wood, of some tasteful design, cor- 
responding with the rest of the room, and yet look far better than a cold, costly 
white marble affair, that will run away with much money to no purpose. The 
centre table should be a serviceable, substantial piece of furniture, at which three 
or four people will be able to sit and read comfortably. A well-made chintz- 
colored lounge, although a much more economical and far more comfortable 
piece of furniture than a common rosewood sofa, will be found to have an equally 
agreeable effect in the room. Two or three tables of fanciful design and trifling 
expense, that can be moved wherever they may be wanted at a moment's notice, 
will give life and animation to such a parlor. An easy chair or two for tired 
visitors (besides the regular half dozen) will be found very acceptable. Some 
pretty, simple engravings on the wall in neat frames, and an oil painting or two, 
can be obtained at a very moderate cost. Pretty casts for the mantel-piece, or 
to be placed on brackets here and there on the walls, may be obtained for a 
mere trifle. A bird cage, a basin of gold fish, or a hanging basket of flowers, if 
there are any young girls in the family, will also help to give an air of vitality 
to the whole room, which should be the central point of attraction for all the in- 
mates. It is possible, however, if we lay too much stress on these minor accesso- 
ries, that some Mr. Blank may say : " This will never do. We can't have our 
girls fussing with flowers and birds and gold fish. They have their duties to 
perform and their studies to attend to." We will, therefore, stop here, ventur- 
ing merely to remark, with all due deference, that although duties must, of 
course, be performed, yet innocent pleasures ought also to be encouraged, and that 
no study will insure so rich a reward to all concerned as the study of simple, 
quiet, domestic grace and elegance. 

110. The Color of Cottages and School-houses has much influence on 
their general effect. Every rural building, says the accomplished writer and 
architect just quoted, requires four tints to make it a pleasant object in the way 
of color. This variety costs but little more than a monotonous repetition, while 
it adds much to the completeness of the effect. They should be often cheerful 
and light, sometimes neutral, seldom dark, and never black or white. There is, 
fortunately, no end to the tints that may be used. The main walls should be 
of some agreeable shade or color; the roof trimmings, verandas, and other wood- 
work, being either of a different color or a different shade of the same color, so 
that a contrast, though not a harsh one, be established. The third color, though 
not widely different from the other wood-work, should be applied to the solid 
parts of the Venetian blinds. The movable slats should be painted the fourth 
tint. This last should be far the darkest used on the premises, for the effect of 
a glass window or opening in a wall is always dark when seen from a distance. 
If this natural fact is not remembered, and the shutters are painted the same 
color as the rest of the house, a blank, uninteresting effect will be produced, for 
when the blinds are closed the house will appear to a person at a little distance 
to be without windows at all. 

111. Concrete or Gravel Walls are of very ancient date in some parts of 
Europe. When well laid they are very enduring. They are better adapted to 
mild than cold climates. The French Huguenots introduced the art into this 
country. Some of the buildings which they erected remained habitable for a 
century and a half. Blocks of concrete, of which they formed forts along the 



78 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



southern coast, are still in a good state of preservation. It is wise to secure the 
services of the most skilful workmen in undertaking any job with which you 
are not acquainted. This the builder of a concrete house should be. 

The materials requisite are sharp, clean, sand and gravel, free from dirt, a por- 
tion of small stones and freshly burnt lime. The lime may be coarse; it must be 
strong. Oyster-shell lime answers well. But no lime that has been exposed to 
the air and become slaked is fit to use. 

The foundation must be dry. If not naturally so, under-draining must be had. 
Where flat stones can be obtained it is well to lay a course in the bottom of the 
trench below the reach of frost. Where frost is not troublesome it is only neces- 
sary to go down to the compact solid earth for commencing the foundation. 
Hydraulic concrete is sometimes used to commence with until the walls are 
carried up a few feet. 

There is not much difficulty in carrying up the sides. All the trouble will 
be at the corners. Hard-burnt brick or square blocks of stone may be used for 
these and at the openings for doors and windows. 

There are two methods of constructing the walls. One is to form blocks of 
concrete in moulds ; set them up to dry and harden, then lay them in the wall 
as you would blocks of stone. Another and more rapid way is to build a curb- 
ing on either side of the wall, lay the concrete in this and raise the curbing as 
the work progresses. The exercise of ordinary care will keep the walls plumb 
and true. The width of the moulds must be the same as the thickness of the 
wall. Each block may be a foot high and three feet long, or varied to suit the 
openings for doors and windows. 

It is not advisable to give specific directions as to the quantities of the ma- 
terials used. The mechanic, if he understands his business, will regulate that 
matter. With a proper admixture of sand, gravel, and small stones the amount 
of lime required will be just what is sufficient to form a perfect coating for every 
particle of sand, pebble, and stone. Any considerable excess weakens the work. 




Fig. 63. Ground plan. Fig. 62. Front elevation Fig. 64. Second story. 
of Gardener's Cottage. 



112. This design for a gardener's cottage is in- 
tended for rubble work or stones as they come from 
the quarry, without dressing. It is also well adapted 
for gravel work. The engraving sufficiently explains 
the arrangement and use of the rooms. It will, per- 
haps, occur to the builder that a window on the 
right of the front hall in the ground plan might 
be preferred in some cases to the closet, since 
there is a liberal provision of them elsewhere. 

The cut, Fig. 65, illustrates on an enlarged scale 
a style of stone hood for a window adapted to 
this class of work. When, after a year or two, 
the attentive hand has trained climbing vines to 
run upon the walls, this cottage will stand as 
one of the most winsome houses in the neighbor- 
hood. 




Fig. 65. Stone window 
hood. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



79 



113. Gables, verge boards, hoods, &c, of rural dwellings admit of an almost 
endless variety of designs. The elevation of the roof, its interruption by peaks, 




Fig. 66. Hipped gable. 



Fig. 67. Verge board and finial, Fig. 68. Verge board and 
No. 1. finial, No. 2. 



dormers, &c, give character and expression, as the organs of the face affect the 
countenance of a man. The hipped gable is in common use on the more recent 
houses for the wealthy, and also for the occupancy of laborers in the neighbor- 
hood of our large cities. Its effect is entirely different from that of the ordi- 
nary plain gable, Avith its nicely wrought verge board. A neat verge board is 
an ornament ; but too much of what is called filigree work is not in good taste. 
The designs are suggestive, and are subject to modification. 

The high-peaked gable is still another desirable style where economy is less 
an object. The finials, or ornaments standing upon the peak in these designs, 
have also their own effect in modifying the general expression. The roofs of 
cottages last longer for being steep. Good heart pine or cypress shingles make 
the best covering for the roof. 





Fig. 69. Hooded door. Fig. 70. Hooded window. 

There is no beauty in a simple hood of itself as shown in either of the illus- 
trations ; but it is on such devices the architect relies in part to lift our cot- 
tages out of their close resemblance to stables or other outbuildings. The hooded 
door is coming into very general use. Indeed, it is an old style of ornamenta- 
tion for plain houses, entirely in keeping wiih the humblest. It is now employed 
in some of the finest country residences on an enlarged scale. The hood, instead 



80 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 




Fig. 71. Plan of grounds. — Designed by Vaux. 



of being but a foot or two wide, may be extended to three, five, or more feet, 
and, if you please, carried up in a peak with a roof jutting to each side. The 
timbers should be framed into the house, and supported at the outer ends by 
graceful brackets reaching down upon the side of the door posts. Underneath 
is the seat for the hour of rest and social chat. How inviting are such features. 
They seem to hold out the hand to the man of taste and bid him welcome. Set 
evergreens near them, train the ivy over them, and there let them stand to grace 
the humble entrance all the winter long. If you do these things your cottage 
will seem a palace, and never again be a bald, naked shelter only. 

114. On a given lot 
the position of the dwell- 
ing is often determined 
by the nature of the 
ground, the view to be 
obtained, the shelter to 
be secured, or disagreea- 
ble and offensive objects 
to be avoided — as frog 
ponds, marshes, and the 
like. It is not desirable 
to have the plat cut up 
with numerous gravel 
walks into small divi- 
sions. A few walks lead- 
ing to the different parts of the grounds with a specific object to be gained in 
following them, is all that is required. In the plan above shown these inten- 
tions are most admirably executed. The house stands a little on one side of the 
centre at the front, perhaps on account of the gentle slope of the ground in every 
direction from that spot. At the right is a flower bed, and in rear of this are 
clumps of trees in thu midst of a beautiful lawn. The kitchen garden occupies 
a liberal area near by, sloping to the south and east to receive the morning sun. 
It is not expected that those for whom these hints are intended will be able 
at once to lay out their grounds on the costly and extensive scale which the 
plan calls for, but correct taste can better be formed by good models to guide 
the eye than by many elaborate directions. Having fixed on his plan, the owner 
may do what he can the first year, more the next, and so on until he has a very 
complete and tasteful arrangement of his grounds. 

115. Hedgks. — It is a troublesome thing for a poor man to be compelled to 
renew his fences every two years; and there is really no need of it. We would 
have him try a hedge. It will require several years to complete it; but when 
completed will last longer than the builder of it. But it takes forethought and 
perseverance. These two elements are the chief stock in trade for a poor man 
to invest in who wants to work his way up to competence. Without them the 
rich run down to the heels and vacate their mansions in favor of more industrious, 
prudent, thoughtful men. 

An evergreen hedge is a perpetual delight. It forms a green wall in winter, 
and is no less beautiful in spring and at autumn. Arbor vitas is the most com- 
mon evergreen used. Why would not the holly grow well in long continuous 
lines, or several other varieties of evergreens:' Young evergreens may be 
brought from the borders of the forest, not from its thick shade ; these die on 
coming to the full blaze of the sun. Set them in double rows, six inches apart. 
Mulch and water them ; trim them thoroughly if the roots are injured. Wrap 
straw around them to prevent them from drying up. After they get started they 
will need trimming into form. 

In tropical climates not a few of the broad-leaved plants make magnificent 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



81 



hedges ; but for common purposes, as for turning stock, some thorny plant is 
needed. The cheapest, and as yet the most reliable hedge plant, is the osage 
orange, a native of Texas. It is a rapid grower, and will make a hedge in four 
years. A single row of plants is set, plants one year from the seed, about four 
inches asunder in the row. After one year they are cut down close to the 
ground. Numerous shoots spring up from the stump. The second year these 
are cut down to six inches ; the third year to one foot. After that they are let 
to grow up to four or six feet, according to the object to be gained. One hint is 
never to be forgotten in this branch of work. Keep the hedge broad next the 
ground. If you fail in this at the start, hoping to get a fence sooner by letting 
the plants run up, the error is fatal ; no amount of tinkering will mend the de- 
fect. If kept trimmed closely at the top the base naturally broadens. Then 
let the upper branches come on and take their place, but never to extend out so 
far as the lower ones. Plants must have light.. Leaves will not grow in the 
dense shade of a hedge. Large trees along the line of a hedge injure their sym- 
metry of growth. Damp grounds are bad. The osage will not flourish in either 
situation ; shade or " damp feet " kill it. The breadth of a hedge at its base should 
be four to five feet It may taper at the top to 12 or 18 inches. 

While the plants are J»uug they require cultivation to keep down the weeds. 
If the climate be hot and arid, it will be necessary to mulch them ; that is, to 
cover the row on either side with a coat of straw or saw-dust to prevent moisture 
from evaporating, and thus drying up the young roots. After the plants have 
become well established the roots run down deep into the ground. The branches 
will give a shade, and they will sustain themselves as well as other trees. The 
time may come when our broad acres will be too closely hemmed in by dense 
population to give so much space as hedges require ; but that is a question for 
generations to come, about which we need borrow no trouble. 

116. In connection with hedges 
the subject of rustic gates invites 
attention. They belong to that class 
of plain, yet, in some way, elegant 
things, which a man who can handle 
an axe, chisel, mallet, and saw can 
make at odd times — rainy days and 
dull seasons, when others loiter at 

Fig. 72. Eustic Gate, No. 1. f h ' e . f ocei T' w ™ t[n % time money 

health, and good name, all tor want 

of a little resolution to be men among men. 

To make them, select cedar 
poles for the materials. Trim off f|§||l 
the small branches without inter- WS& 
fering with the bark on the parts WUjl 
to be used. The poles need not 
be over three to five inches in fgig 
diameter. Mortise the uprights 
and tenon the rails ; fit the cross- 
pieces to their places by halving out the points of intersection with the rails, so 
they will lie closely. Bolt all the joints firmly. Countersink for the nuts and 
heads. The upper end of the posts or uprights should be shaved or rounded 
and painted with shellac to shed the rain and prevent the heat from checking 
them. 

There are a dozen different forms for these gates. In all the idea is prominent 
that the cross-pieces mast serve as braces to keep the gate from sagging. 
6 s c 



j& 




Fig. 73. Eustic Gate, No. 2. 



82 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 




Fig. 74. Hooded Eustic Gate. 



This novel and pretty 
design may be easily 
constructed by any man 
who is handy with tools. 
The cut represents one 
for wagons. It is quite 
as unique on a smaller 
scale for the front gate 
leading to the house, and 
of course would not be 
quite so formidable an 
affair to attempt to con- 
struct. There are two 
high posts at each end, 
planted about two feet 
asunder. A cross-piece 
is fastened to the top of 
these. It is supported 
. at each end by the braces 
bolted on to the posts. 
Plates, if they may be so designated, rest on the cross-pieces. This is the 
foundation for the roof. It may be made of narrow boards or smaller cedar 
poles laid close together or thatched. The thatch will be laid on and secured 
in the usual manner. Shorter posts may be set between the tall uprights for 
the gate, so that it will hang in the centre. They may be fastened to them so 
that they will not move from their places by the weight of the gate. Gates of 
this style, well made and firmly bolted, will last many years without repairs. 

117. Rustic work is adapted to many useful and beautiful devices around the 
home. It may constitute the frame-work of a porch, which an ingenious laborer 
can build with his own hands, large enough for the comfort of all his family. 
A screen or a trellis, the well-curb, an arbor, or a shaded seat may be constructed 
of boughs with bark on, naturally arched in the desired forms. Quite a variety 
of wood is fitted for this work. Besides red cedar, the white ash, after it has 
grown rough-barked, is very excellent and long lasting. The sassafras at a 
dozen years old matures into roughness of bark, and the bark sticks tightly to 
the wood, and the wood lasts long exposed to the weather. Slow growing trees 
hold their bark best. They should be cut late in the fall, when they have got 
ready to stand a long contest with winter The bark hugs closest to them then. 
The bark of the oak and pine soon cleaves off and leaves the sap-wood bare. 
Those varieties of wood produce the best effect which have the habit of cracking 
the bark finely with age. Precautions are necessary to keep out insects from 
working in the sap-wood. A coat of petroleum will do that, and an application 
or two, annually, of shellac varnish (gum shellac dissolved in alcohol) will form 
a covering which will resist the attacks of the rain and prevent the exposed 
ends of the sticks from cracking, as before stated. Such simple decorations are 
neither meaningless nor expensive. To an intelligent observer they are very 
expressive. They speak of culture and refinement within, a fondness for some- 
thing more than the barest supply of our animal wants, yet none the less regard 
do they indicate for life's common affairs The man of taste does not look for 
cultivation in a hovel nor for refinement in a barrack. Even the " child of pen- 
ury by instinct shuns the poor." The yard, the gate, the walk, and the grounds, 
as well as the house, all tell him something of the kind of people he may expect 
to find within. The culture of refined sentiments and the daily practice of the 
amenities of life lead to higher conceptions of its aims and possibilities, while 
to live like brutes makes brutes of men. 



SCHOOL-HOUSES AND COTTAGES. 



83 



Useful hints applicable to cottages and those who live in them are contained 
in the former portion of this work, especially the articles on ventilation, warming, 
and lighting. 

To be happy, the poor man and woman, as well as the wealthy, must have an 
honorable object in view, to accomplish which they press onward with a hearty 
good will. Active occupation through the day sharpens the appetite and com- 
poses the body for rest at night. It turns the thoughts away from griefs that 
corrode. It keeps the system in health and preserves the mind in peace. Add 
to industry economy, and to economy purity of life — that family will prosper 
which possesses these. Respect, esteem, honor, and competence will surely be 
theirs. 




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